moval of household goods, and bread eaten with trembling. (7) False prophets reproved and threatened. (8) Idolatrous elders condemned. (9) The rejection of Jerusalem, represented by the burning of an unfruitful vine. (10) God's compassionate love, against which Israel had sinned, compared to kind care shown to a child cast out at its birth. (11) Judgments on Israel for turning to Egypt for help against Babylon denounced under the emblem of two great eagles, one representing Nebuchadnezzar, and the other Pharaoh. (12) Judgment denounced on every transgressor for his own sins, contrary to the common proverb implying that children suffer for their fathers' faults. (13) Captivity of the Jewish kings, represented by lions pursued and captured, and of the Jewish people, by a vine scorched, torn up, and planted in the wilderness. (14) God's mercies to Israel, and their continued transgression reviewed; and, while final forgiveness is promised to the penitent, impending judgments are declared. (15) A consumed forest represents Jerusalem destroyed, and a sharp sword, Nebuchadnezzar cutting down Ammonites and Jews. (16) Recital of sins committed in Jerusalem by all classes of the people, and judgments on them denounced. (17) Idolatries of Samaria and Jerusalem, and their punishment. (18) Dreadful destruction of Jerusalem again proclaimed.

Part ii. consists of prophecies against various nations around Judea (chs. xxv.-xxxii.), subdivided into three sections. (1) Against the Ammonites, Moabites, Edomites, and Philistines. (2) Against Tyre (represented, in its beauty, wealth, and renown, as the anointed cherub on the mountain of God), with a promise of returning prosperity to Israel. (3) Against Egypt. In the last two prophecies Nebuchadnezzar is named as the instrument appointed to carry out God's purposes.

Part iii. embodies the promises of future deliverance to Israel (chs. xxxiii.-xxxix), subdivided into five sections. (1) The prophet is compared to a watchman appointed to give warning of danger, and is exhorted to be faithful. While under the power of the prophetic spirit, being informed that Jerusalem had been taken by Nebuchadnezzar, he foretells the desolation of the land, and reproves the hypocrisy of the captives around him. (2) The rulers, civil and ecclesiastical, condemned as unfaithful shepherds, and a general restoration of the people promised under the guidance of the good shepherd, David the prince. (3) Judgments against Edom again foretold. (4) Promises of restoration renewed to Israel, under the emblems of fruitful mountains, sprinkled water, a new heart, dry bones raised to life, and two sticks united together. (5) Destruction of Gog (i.e. the Scythian forces advancing from the north), followed by blessings to Israel.

The fourth series of discourses (chs. xl.-xlviii.), while forming part of the general picture of the restoration, is separated by its character from the rest of the book, and reveals the priestly interests of Ezekiel. It gives (1) an elaborate picture of the future temple based apparently on the temple of Solomon; (2) a description of the altar and offerings; (3) the functions of the priest; (4) the territorial distribution of the tribes and boundaries of the land.

There are two features of Ezekiel's prophecies

The

that are of special significance: (1) the visions, and (2) the descriptions of the temple cult. The former marks the beginning of that tendency in Jewish thought that led to the production of the extensive apocalyptic literature (q.v.), chiefly between the second century B.C. and the second century A.D. (See CHERUB; APOCRYPHA.) latter stands midway between the Deuteronomic code and the final priestly legislation, for which it paves the way. Ezekiel's programme and general notions of the functions and privileges of the priest were followed largely in the so-called Holiness Code (Lev. xvii.-xxvi.), though the latter represents an even more advanced ritualistic standpoint. A notable difference, however, between Deuteronomy and Ezekiel is that, whereas according to the former all Levites are priests, according to Ezekiel only the Zadokites are recognized, while in the still later Holiness Code only descendants of Aaron are regarded as priests. Again, as regards festive seasons, Deuteronomy mentions three great festivals-Passover, Weeks, and Booths-whereas Ezekiel omits the second, but adds a special ceremony of purification for the first days of the first and seventh months, and the Holiness Code has in addition to the three given in Deuteronomy, the Feast of Trumpets (the post-exilic New Year's Day) and the Day of Atonement.

The direction thus given by Ezekiel to the elaboration of the cult was followed in succeeding generations. It is his spirit which pervades the perfected Priestly Code, and in a significant sense it is Ezekiel who may be denominated the forerunner of post-exilic Judaism, which centres around the temporary cult and ceremonial minutiæ. This constitutes his main claim to an immortal position in Hebrew history. In moral sublimity and in eloquence he is surpassed by Isaiah and others, in profundity of feeling and unalloyed patriotism by Jeremiah; but it is Ezekiel who, drawing from the past with its tribulations and final catastrophe the lesson that the future restoration and the future happiness of the people depend upon their observance of Jehovah's decrees, regards it as the most important task of the leaders to determine in the most minute way exactly what Jehovah has commanded, exactly how He is to be worshiped, and then to spare no efforts in the endeavor to have these regulations carried out. Salvation rests upon the temple cult, the constitution of a legitimatized priesthood, and upon the strict obedience of the people in observing the Sabbath and festivals, in paying tithes, bringing sacrifices, and observing all such laws as are placed before them by the authority given to their religious leaders-the priests. Consult the commentaries, particularly Smend, Keil, Davidson, Bertholet, Toy, and Krätschmar; also Cornill, Der Prophet Ezechiel geschildert (Heidelberg, 1882), and Das Buch des Propheten Ezechiel (Leipzig, 1886); D. H. Müller, EzechielStudien (Vienna, 1894).

EZEKIEL, MOSES JACOB (1844-). An American sculptor, born in Richmond, Va. He was educated in his native city, and fought in the Civil War. In 1869 he entered the Academy of Art in Berlin, where he studied under Wolf, and in 1873 received the Michael Beer Prize for sculpture, the first American to obtain that distinction. He then went to Rome and set up his studio in the ruins of the Baths of Diocletian.

His first large work was a group representing "Religious Liberty" (1874) which is now in Fairmount Park, Philadelphia. Among other works by him are the much-discussed "Christus," "Eve Hearing the Voice," "The Daughter of Eve," "Judith," a Madonna for a church in Tivoli, eleven statues of famous artists for the Corcoran Gallery in Washington, and the Jefferson Monument in Louisville, Ky. His portraits, in the round and relief, include those of Liszt, Hohenlohe, Longfellow, Lee, and Farragut. The work of Ezekiel is little known in this country, for the best of it remains abroad. It departs from the conventional standard in many cases, and is original and strong in sentiment. It also shows the influence of Michelangelo rather than the Greek models, although such works as "Consolation," "Pan and Cupid," and "Apollo and Mercury" are classical in tendency. At the St. Louis Exposition (1904) he exhibited "Eve," a work of high merit.

EZION-GEBER, e'zi-on geber (Heb., where Geber-trees grow). A station of the Israelites on their road from Egypt (Num. xxxiii. 35; Deut. ii. 8). It was originally a city of Edom, which David conquered (II. Sam. viii. 14). Later it was the station of Solomon's navy, which was engaged in the gold trade with Ophir (I. Kings ix. 26; II. Chron. viii. 17); when Jehoshaphat fitted out ships for a similar purpose they were broken at this port (I. Kings xxii. 48; II. Chron. xx. 36-37). Josephus (Ant. viii. 6, 4) says the place was called Berenice in his day. EzionGeber is probably identical with the modern Ain-el-Ghudyan, where is now the dry bed of the Arabah near Elath (q.v.).

EZRA (perhaps shortened from Azariah, Jehovah helps). With Nehemiah the most promiinent figure connected with the return of the Hebrews from Babylonia and the reorganization of the temple cult. Of the details of his private life but little is known. He belonged to a priestly family, and was resident in Babylon in the reign of Artaxerxes Longimanus (B.C. 465425). With this monarch he seems to have been in considerable favor, and in the year B.C. 458 obtained permission to return to Jerusalem with a band of his countrymen, 1754 in number. Ezra was authorized to carry offerings to the temple made by the King and by the Jews who remained behind, to purchase sacrificial animals, and to use the rest of the money that was given to him as he saw fit. As further privileges, all those engaged in the service of the temple were freed from taxation. A later generation exaggerated the authority given to Ezra, and assumed that he was also instructed and given power to carry out the laws of the Persian King and the law of God. While Ezra did not enjoy any authority of this kind, he, aided by the statesman Nehemiah, became an influential member of the new colony.

Ezra, on his arrival in Palestine, found the Jewish population, priests and Levites included, contracting marriages with non-Jewesses. To one profoundly impressed with the fundamental principle that Jehovah's people are to remain pure if the laws of Jehovah are to be carried out, such a state of affairs was distressing, and we can well understand Ezra's grief bordering on despair. The question was taken up in an assembly of the people held in the year of

Ezra's arrival; but beyond the appointment of a commission of inquiry, which drew up a list of persons who had entered upon mixed marriages, little was done. More radical measures were needed; but the cause languished until the advent of Nehemiah, when the attempt was made to enforce the law, not only against the mixed marriages, but also the various other regulations in the legal codes, such as the observance of the Sabbath day, the letting the land lie fallow every seventh year, the contributions to the temple treasury, and the payment of tithes. A number of persons had agreed to abide by the law; they formed the nucleus of the true Israel, and through them the opportunity was presented to lay before the whole people on a solemn occasion the full law promulgated in the name of Moses, and which contained the minute regulations of the cult. Most scholars are of the opinion that this event took place in the year B.C. 444, and is the one described in Nehemiah, chs. viii.-x., where Ezra with Nehemiah at his side is pictured as gathering the people on the plateau before the Water Gate, and reading to them the Book of the Law. The impressive scene is described in detail. Two days are consumed in the reading. The people are profoundly impressed, and portrayed as moved to tears at the thought of their past disobedience. Preparations are at once made to carry out the law, and as a symbol of repentance a great fast is held. There is no reason to ques tion the theory that Ezra used his time in Jerusalem in preparing an elaborate code, and that this code was promulgated on the occasion of Nehemiah's first visit to Jerusalem, and not, as some scholars are inclined to believe, on the second visit (B.C. 433). Still there are features connected with the promulgation that are very obscure, as indeed is the whole question of the relationship of Ezra to Nehemiah. The new law book thus brought to the people is the compilation to which scholars have assigned the name Priestly Code (P) or Law-book, and which forms an important part of the present Pentateuch or Hexateuch (q.v.). Like the Yahwistic and Elohistic histories (see ELOHIST AND YAHWIST), the Priestly Code was a mixture of narrative and legislation, with this distinction-that in the latter the legislative parts predominate and that the past of Israel is not merely viewed from the theocratic position, but with constant regard to the ceremonial law. The creation narrative is given in P for the sake of the Sabbath command attached to it, not, as in J, as a sole illustration of Jehovah's eternity and supreme power; and similarly the Flood interests P because of the prohibition against eating blood which is connected with it. He reviews the lives of Patriarchs, furnishes genealogies, and manifests fondness for statistical details. The aim and goal of the narratives is, however, the Law, to which the narratives serve simply as an introduction and a framework. This law covers the greater portions of Leviticus and large parts of Numbers. The priestly writer carries his narrative down through the death of Moses into the period of the conquest of Canaan. Whether Ezra's book was the Priestly Code in its complete shape or not, we may feel certain that what he read to the people was substantially what scholars designate as such. The movement thus inaugurated met with success. The new law book was formally recognized and the temple service

was regulated according to its theories and prescriptions. Naturally, not all the laws were carried out, or could be, and it is doubtful whether, at any time in the history of Israel, all the Pentateuchal regulations were adhered to in their detail; but what is important to note is that with Ezra the definite departure begins leading to a conception of Judaism as essentially identical with the observance of canonical minutiæ, that may best be designated as Rabbinical or Talmudic Judaism.

Ezra, besides being called the priest, is explicitly designated as the scribe. He receives the title by virtue of his activity in bringing the new law book before the people. As a scribe, he is the forerunner of the rabbis who in the succeeding centuries usurp the place of the priests, and as the students and interpreters of the law become the characteristic feature of Judaism, until in the nineteenth century the reaction against Talmudic Judaism set in.

For the various views held regarding the reorganization of the Jews after the exile, consult: Kosters, German translation, Die Wiederherstellung Israels (Heidelberg, 1895); Meyer, Entstehung des Judenthums (Halle, 1896); with Wellhausen's criticisms in the Göttinger Gelehrte Anzeigen, February, 1897, and Meyer's answer, Julius Wellhausen und meine Schrift, Die Entstehung des Judenthums (Halle, 1897); Marquardt, Fundamente der jüdischen Geschichte (1896); Cheyne, Jewish Religious Life After the Exile (New York, 1898). See Ezra, BOOK OF.

EZRA, BOOK OF. A record of portions of Jewish history after the Babylonian exile. It originally formed in the Jewish canon one book with Nehemiah, and is supposed to have been compiled by the author of Chronicles from various documents, such as: (a) the memoirs of Ezra and Nehemiah; (b) accounts of the building of the temple at Jerusalem in the reign of Darius; (c) lists of heads of priestly and Levitical families; (d) lists of returned exiles-to all of which sources the redactor has made additions of his own. In the Septuagint the two books are still one and are called Esdras B (see ESDRAS, BOOKS OF).

A division into two parts suggests itself, the first of which (chs. i.-vi.) contains: (1) The decree of Cyrus, dated in the first year of his reign and giving permission to the Jews to return to their own land and rebuild their temple. (2) The record of his restoration of the sacred vessels of silver and gold which Nebuchadnezzar had taken from the temple and brought to Babylon. (3) The return of a portion of the people and the commencement of the work. (4) The obstacles placed in their way, chiefly by the Samaritans, in consequence of the refusal of the Jews to allow them to share in the work. (5) The interruption of the work till the second year of Darius Hystaspes, who, having found the decree of Cyrus, confirmed it and gave the Jews additional privileges and help by which they were enabled to complete their temple in the sixth year of Darius and reëstablish divine worship. This part thus comprises the history of the Jews from B.C. 538 to 515. The second part (chs. vii.-x.) takes us to the seventh year of Artaxerxes I. Longimanus (B.C. 458), and contains: (1) The decree of Artaxerxes, giving Ezra authority to proceed to Jerusalem with all Jews who wished to accompany him, and reëstablish the

Jewish State. On this occasion, the King, with his counselors, added large sums of silver and gold to the free-will offerings of the people, and also directed his treasurers in the provinces intervening between Babylon and Jerusalem to furnish the expedition liberally with needed supplies. (2) The arrival of Ezra, accompanied by 600 chief men and 200 priests and Levites. (3) The measures taken by Ezra for the suppression of mixed marriages.

The historical value of the narrative in Ezra and Nehemiah varies with almost every chapter. It is now considered doubtful whether the memoirs of Ezra and Nehemiah (Ezra vii. 27 to viii. 34, and ix.; Neh. i. 1 to vii. 5, and xiii. 4-31), in which the two are introduced as speaking in the first person, are authentic; and it seems, in any case, certain that the memoirs do not lie before us in their original form. The decree of Artaxerxes, more particularly, cannot be regarded as authentic. Strong arguments have also been brought forward against the current theory that any formal return of exiles in large numbers took place in the days of Cyrus. The lists in Ezra and Nehemiah are, on this theory, transferred to the days of Ezra, with whom the movement for a reorganization of the Jewish theocracy thus begins. This theory also carries with it the unhistorical character of the narrative regarding the restoration of the walls of Jerusalem long before Nehemiah's times (Ezra iv. 6-23). In short, the compiler of Ezra and Nehemiah approached his theme with a certain theory, and did not hesitate to rearrange his material and make his changes and additions in the documents from which he worked, so as to present the history of the Jews from the days of Cyrus as one continued endeavor on the part of the returned exiles to build this temple and establish the cult in accordance with the supposed laws given by Moses; whereas in reality it was the Jews who had remained in Judea and Jerusalem by whom the work of rebuilding the temple was begun, the exiles playing no part till B.C. 445, on the occasion of Nehemiah's first visit to Jerusalem. W. K. Kosters of Leyden, who first propounded this theory, also claimed that Ezra did not come to Jerusalem till Nehemiah's second visit in B.C. 433, and that it was on this occasion that the new law-book was brought to the people at the assembly which marks the constitution of the congregation of Israel. Certain features of this theory, such as the late date of Ezra's arrival, have been generally rejected; but the doubts cast upon the authenticity of the events, at least in the order as related by the compiler of Ezra and Nehemiah, appear to be justified, though further investigation is required to dispose of some of the problems that still beset the scholar for the period B.C. 538-430, which is one of the most puzzling in Jewish history.

The late

Consult, besides the works referred to under EZRA, Torrey's important monograph on The Composition and Historic Value of Ezra and Nehemiah (Giessen, 1896), and the commentaries on Ezra and Nehemiah by Ryle, Keil, Oettli, and Siegfried, though in view of the direction recently taken by Old Testament studies on EzraNehemiah, these are in part antiquated. See EZRA; NEHEMIAH.

EZZELINO, ět'se-le'no, DA ROMANO. An Italian Ghibelline family. The first Ezzelino was a

German cavalier who settled in Italy at the time of the Hohenstaufen dynasty, and was given the Castle of Romano; hence the name. Ezzelino II. was, against all the family traditions, a Guelph. He lived about 1180. His son, Ezzelino III., was podestà of Vicenza until a Guelph success (1194) caused his downfall. With the protection of the Emperor, Otto IV., he regained his position, but finally abdicated (1215). Ezzelino IV. (1194-1259), his son, was the most celebrated of the family. Upon the abdication of his father

he became podestà of Vicenza, and directed all his energies against the enemies of his house. He established his capital at Padua, and by the victory of the Emperor Frederick II. at Cortenuova (1237) became master of northern Italy from Milan to the Adriatic. His cruelty and impiety caused him to be excommunicated in 1252, and the Lombard cities made a league against him which he could not resist. He was taken prisoner in 1259, and died soon after. His brother and all his family were murdered.

the f (a semi-vowel)

found in the earliest Greek inscriptions, called digamma, from a fancied resemblance to a pair of gammas. See ALPHABET; LETTERS.

PHONETIC CHARACTER. F is pronounced by joining the lower lip and the upper teeth, and it is a labio-dental voiceless aspirate. Its corresponding voiced labio-dental is v. Latin f was practically the same sound as English f, and was not like the Greek 4, which was distinctly a double sound (ph), pronounced as in top-heavy. Under certain circumstances f may take the place of any of the mutes. Original bh, gh, and dh (in English b, g, d) may be represented by Latin f, as Skt. bharati 'he bears,' Lat. fert, Eng. bears, Skt. gharmas, Lat. formus, Eng. warm. English f represents (1) an original p: Skt. pitar, Eng. father; Skt. pāda, Eng. foot; (2) a guttural: Lat. quatuor, Eng. four; Lat. quinque, Eng. five. The pronunciation of gutturals has a tendency to lapse into the easier sound; cf. cough, laugh, pronounced as if spelt with an f. Anglo-Saxon f sometimes disappears in modern English, e.g. wif-man, and hläford, now woman and lord.

AS A SYMBOL. F, in music, is the fourth note of the natural diatonic scale of C, and stands in the treble clef in the first space or in the fifth line; in the bass clef it stands on the fourth line or in the first space below. In chemistry F fluorine. F as an abbreviation stands for 40; with a bar above F it is 40,000.

FAʼBELL, PETER. A personage born and buried at Edmonton, Middlesex, England, mentioned as having died during the reign of Henry VII. (1485-1509). He was said to have sold his soul to the devil, and after him is named the chief character in the once popular play The Merry Devil of Edmonton.

FABER, färber, CECILIA BÖHL VON. See CABALLERO, FERNAN.

FABER, FREDERICK WILLIAM (1814-63). An English prelate. He was born at Calverley, England; studied at Balliol College, Oxford, where he became an enthusiastic admirer of John Henry

Newman, and was ordained priest in 1839. After some years spent in traveling on the Continent he became a convert to the Roman Catholic Church, and founded a religious community at Birmingham. This community was ultimately merged in the Oratory of Saint Philip Neri, of which Newman was the head, and in 1849 a branch was established in London, over which Faber presided till his death. He published a number of theological works, but it is mainly as a writer of fervent and graceful hymns that he will be remembered. He wrote "O Gift of Gifts, O Grace of Faith," "Paradise, O Paradise," and other familiar hymns.

A

FABER, fä'ber, FREDERIK (1795-1828). Danish zoologist. He was born at Odense, on the island of Fünen, and graduated in law in 1818. From early youth he displayed a great interest in zoology, and published his first book on that subject in 1815, under the title, Indledning til Dyrelæren til Brug ved den Naturhistoriske Undervisning. From 1819 to 1821 he traveled through Iceland, and he published his investigations in a work of permanent value, entitled Ueber das Leben der hochnordischen Vögel Islands (1825-26). His other works include Prodromus isländischer Ornithologie (1822), with the supplement entitled Nachtrag zur isländischen Ornithologie (1824); Naturgeschichte der Fische Islands (1829); and numerous contributions to Oken's Isis and the periodical entitled Tidsskrif for Naturvidenskaberne. His name has been applied to several zoölogical species.

FA'BER, GEORGE STANLEY (1773-1854). A learned divine of the Anglican Church. He was the eldest son of the Rev. Thomas Faber, and was born at Calverley, Yorkshire, October 25, 1773. He entered University College, Oxford, in 1789. In 1796 he took his degree of M.A.; was Vicar of Stockton-on-Tees, Durham. Bampton Lecturer for 1801, and in 1805 became After several changes, he received from Bishop Van Mildert, in 1832, the mastership of Sherburn HospiJanuary 27, 1854. His management of the hostal, near the city of Durham, where he died, pital estates was very judicious and successful. Faber wrote upward of forty works, several of which enjoyed an extensive popularity, but have little permanent value. The principal are: The Genius and Object of the Patriarchal, the Levitical, and the Christian Dispensations (1823); The Difficulties of Infidelity (1824); The Difficulties of Romanism (1826, 3d ed. 1853); The