muscles that suggests the participant is finding one of the interview questions a bit embarrassing, or observe the participant's consequent relaxing which suggests that a delicate question has been parried successfully. To be able to watch these spontaneous, unrehearsed physical cues to inner tensions while following what is being said gives the viewer a much wider basis, both for judging the speaker's sincerity and for evaluating the substance of what he says, than is afforded by any other communications medium. For certain types of program content, then, it would seem that television can do something more than to make the individual viewer an eye-witness spectator of events that are happening at the moment. It can give him the feeling of being able to "see into people's minds" as though he were physically present at the scene of action—in some instances, perhaps even better than if he were physically present, since the cameraman, in effect, points out to him the person to watch at any given instant. In short, the viewer gets something of the feeling of being an actual participant.

It is perhaps a bit too early, as yet, to undertake any systematic application of quantitative measurements with respect to television's apparent effects on young people. Much still remains to be done by way of simply identifying its qualitative effects. However, enough progress has been made in the school use of television programs to convince educators, generally, of television's educational potential, and to suggest a number of different areas of planned school experience where experimental television programing might profitably be undertaken.

Production of Television Programs

Actual participation by professional educators in the production of television programs usually starts when the program director of a local commercial television-broadcast station, looking for new sources of material for public-interest and public-service programs, invites individual members of the local school-system or college faculty to appear on a television program (or series of programs) dealing with some aspect of education. In some cases, for example, a series of talks is scheduled, each dealing with a topic lying within the field of specialization of a different instructor. In others, an entire program series is developed around the subject-area interests of a single instructor noted for his showmanly manner of presentation. Teachers known to be quickly reactive in oral argumentation are favorites for participation in panel-discussion telecasts, and specialists in the fields of economics, history, and political science rank high on the station's "invited expert" list for telecasts calling for commentary on public events. Sometimes a teacher is asked to appear with an actual class group to demonstrate the use of a particular

instructional procedure (e. g., analysis of pupils out-of-school television listening preferences as a starting point for building program discrimination). Music and dramatics groups are always in demand for television performances.

Generally speaking, then, this initial phase of school participation in television broadcasting over local commercial stations exhibits three identifying characteristics. First, there appears to be relatively little participation by local school personnel in the actual long-term planning of the programs. Instead, it is usually the station's program director who decides, for each school-participation program, what aspect of education or of local school work would be best suited to audience interests of the moment. Second, there appears to be little or no effort to select topics for these programs that follow one another in any logical order, except in the case of program series of the type where a single instructor appears in all programs of the series. Third, there is a tendency to avoid producing programs based on routine classwork, and, instead, to build programs around aspects of schoolwork that are picturesque or unusual, or that lend themselves to dramatic elaboration. Fortunately, programs of these kinds appear to have a relatively high public-relations value both for the participating educational institution and for the broadcast station. The school system or college, on the one hand, is credited with having demonstrated its alertness to the educational opportunities afforded by this newest of mass-communications media, while, on the other hand, the broadcaster is applauded for his civic-mindedness in making station time available for use by the schools. In recognition of the mutual advantages

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to be gained from such cooperative arrangements, it is only natural that the station management invite the local school system or college to share in the production of one or more regular series of educational television programs, assigning certain of its faculty personnel to work with the station's production staff in planning and producing the programs. Thus the second phase of school participation in television broadcasting begins. This second phase differs from the first in two important respects. First, although the station management is still interested in keeping to program topics of the widest possible public interest, the programs take on a definitely recognizable educational pattern. Whereas, at first, they appeared to be aimed primarily at public entertainment, in this second phase, each program is seen to be built around a central educational purpose, and, in the case of program series, there is a discernible pattern of logical progression from one program to the next. Second, although programing-policy decisions are still considered to rest with the station's management and staff, school personnel do function in an advisory capacity, so far as selecting the content to be broadcast is concerned, and they participate directly in all aspects of program production from assisting in the writing of the scripts to serving as members of the program cast. It is on the basis of cooperative programing arrangements of this kind that most of the educational television programs now on the air are being produced. In a number of cities, programs intended for planned home viewing and subsequent in-school discussion and analysis are produced. In some instances, programs designed for in-school class-group viewing are produced. In most instances, programs aimed at popularizing topics of acknowledged educational significance are produced for adult audiences.

School Interest in Owning TV Broadcast Stations

To date, the course of development seen in these cooperative arrangements in educational television programing closely parallels the course taken, in the early days of aural broadcasting-participation by school systems and colleges in educational-program production over local commercial radio stations. Indeed, much of the credit for encouraging wide use of radio at the local-school level is due to the generosity of the local radio broadcasters in making station time available for use by the schools, and in making the services of their production staffs available to assist in producing the programs.

However, in the case of sound broadcasting, it was found that, as teachers developed effective instructional techniques for using educational radio programs, they soon came to recognize a need for of a programs more specific nature designed to serve definite instructional objectives— programs of a type, for the most part, which, because of their specialized

audience appeal, many commercial broadcasters felt they could not afford to broadcast lest they lose a substantial portion of their respective listening audiences to competitive stations. Moreover, schools invariably found they needed more air time for their programing than local commercial stations felt they could make available. Still more serious from the standpoint of the schools, in a great many cases, was the fact that the school would no sooner have an educational program established at a particular time of day than an advertising sponsor bought that particular time, and the station moved the educational program to a new air time. Thus, with the growth of the school use of radio, educators came to feel, increasingly, that, in order to (1) be sure of enough air time for their proragming needs, (2) be able to control their programing policies, and (3) be able to schedule programs for maximum convenience to the school and home listeners for whom they might be intended, educational institutions would need to develop their own stations.

Looking back over these experiences in the field of sound broadcasting, many educators are inclined to feel that, at the rate school interest in television broadcasting is growing, it is inevitable that a point will soon be reached where educational institutions will need to have their own television-broadcast stations.

Considering that it costs about 10 times as much to construct and to operate a television-broadcast station, as it does to construct and to operate an FM broadcast station of the same coverage-area capacity, it might seem unrealistic to think that school ownership and operation of television-broadcast stations is practicable. Realistic or not, there is a substantial and widespread interest on the part of educational institutions in building such stations, as will be shown in part III of this bulletin. At the portion of the recent television rule-making hearings before the Federal Communications Commission which dealt with question of setting aside television-broadcast frequency assignments exclusively for educational use, officially designated spokesmen representing every Nationwide professional educational organization, every class and academic level of educational institution, and most of the major academic areas unanimously recommended that such television frequency reservations be made.

Already, one of the major State universities is operating its own television station, and at least a dozen other institutions of higher learning are known to be in the advanced stages of television station planning. Precisely how long it will be until educational television broadcast stations become as common as educational aural broadcast stations, it would be difficult to estimate. One thing is fairly certain, however: the trend toward educational television broadcasting by school systems and colleges is definitely under way.

Part III. Current Uses of TV by Our Schools

ANY ANALYSIS of television in America, as we now see it, quickly

points out its advantages over other media of communication and its immediate shortcomings. The great educational value of radio always had to be divided into its uses for general education in its largest sense, public information, and then in its more specific use within the school and classroom-education per se.

Radio has the power to (1) attract and hold interest, (2) stir and stimulate the imagination, and (3) aid in retentiveness of the ideas presented. How does it do this? It does it by (1) forcing attention by appealing to a single sense, that of hearing; (2) subtly using sound effects, music, dramatic suspense, and pause to create mental imagery; and (3) reiterating over and over the content of the message to be remembered. These powers are inherent in sound broadcasting, whether radio is used to entertain, inform, instruct, or merely to provide a means of mental escape. When Shakespeare broadcast to his audience in the old Globe Theatre in London he used all these "tricks of the trade." He often used "commotion" off stage to suggest action and "alarums" to create arrested attention in his audience. He depended little upon stage "props" to get his effects. Thus, he involved his audience so completely in the action of his plays that they, themselves, became, literally, a part of the drama itself. That is why he is such good radio today.

But Shakespeare had the additional medium of sight with which to conjure. So he dressed his players up in appropriate costumes and valiantly attempted to make their action "suit the words." The point is he used sight as an additional ingredient of his effects and he often dispensed with it, when he presented an empty stage, or balcony above it. Teachers can learn a great deal from Shakespeare. Not only in his arrangement of material in his discourses, but also in his timing of effects. If he were living today, he would be what television is praying for, the one man who could effectively use it toward a desired end in education, or, in other words, in effectively transmitting ideas. Shakespeare would have been the greatest producer in television. Of course, this would help