had held a number of meetings at the home of one of the girls to work out the design and decide on the colors. In another part of the room, a small group was studying the steps of an original dance. Three children were making export charts, and three others were working on a large product map of Asia. The pupils were enthusiastic about the study and appeared to grow more friendly and cooperative through working together, while their reading and study increased their understanding of people of other countries and their desire to do their part in extending world understanding. Arrangement of the classroom in many of the schools observed depended on the teacher and the children. If there is any characteristic that can be said to be common, it is that the most modern classrooms are informal at least part of the time. A visitor in a Rhode Island first-year classroom saw the following arrangement designed to enable children to help one another both in assignments and in independent work while the teacher is busy with others. In the group are five flexible reading levels. Children are moved from one to another as their needs or interests change. A variety of interest centers at which children can work when they wish are arranged as follows: (a) A table with the label, DO YOU WANT HELP? Various children choose or are assigned to work at this table at different times during the day to act as helpers in reading. This center is usually well patronized. One of a pair of twins said to a visitor: "I help my sister with reading, and she helps me with writing." (b) A numbers table. Children can work here with various concrete materials, such as disks, blocks, and marbles to improve recognition of number and number combinations. (c) A games table. Here are games of all sorts that children choose to work with individually or with partners. (d) A materials center. Here childen make things out of paper, clay, wax, wood, or sawdust and glue. (e) A painting center. In this are two easels, both sides usable, where children can paint on newsprint, wrapping paper, or cloth. (f) A science table. Here a turtle was placed in a box. On a chart above the box was an experience story telling how the turtle had come to their room. Children came to this table to exchange ideas, look, and take notes for study. (g) A COME AND WRITE corner on the blackboard. Here children are given help in practicing the writing of words that cause them difficulty. Here, too, is a pupil helper. Evaluating Group Work In large groups and in small groups, children learn to evaluate their work together. Some teachers try to guide pupils so that each catches his own mistakes and corrects them while work is going on instead of after it is completed. This procedure brings each child greater satisfaction in the long run than having teacher and class point out his errors after his work is done. When work is finished, the emphasis on evaluation is turned toward what can be done to make the next similar production better. In other words, prevention of error is worth more than correction. When pupils begin activities, some teachers help them set up standards as guides and then call attention to these while the work is being done as well as at the end. In Alabama and Texas some schools develop charts like the following and keep them on the bulletin board where anyone can read them at any time: TO HAVE A GOOD WORK PERIOD Begin work on time Keep voices low when working in groups Make notes carefully when reading for information Stick to the assignment until it is finished Do as little talking and moving about as possible Keep in mind ideas for future plans TO HAVE A GOOD DISCUSSION Everyone takes part Keep to the subject being discussed Speak clearly and loudly enough for all to hear Give all a chance to talk Talk one at a time Keep questions until the speaker has finished Disagree politely Deciding on standards together helps prepare pupils to evaluate and keep their work of a quality that pleases them. For example, a Georgia fourth grade discussed with their teacher: "What makes a good picture?" These are the items they considered important: A good background Balance of dark and light colors Big people Action in the picture Fill up the space Have many objects Make all parts interesting (with lots of action) Among ideas that some schools apply in helping children learn through working in groups are the following: (a) Seating is flexible. Movable tables and chairs are used. These make it possible for children in each (b) Mechanics of grouping is simple. Groups are small. (c) Teachers and children sometimes decide upon rules (d) In the elementary school, the trend is toward having Children Working Independently One of the biggest things a child learns in school is to plan and do his work independently when necessity demands. Nearly every day pupils have time in which they work independently of the teacher and of the other children. Independent periods are not times for play. In working by themselves, children complete assignments or responsibilities they have accepted, discover new interests, and find avenues of creativeness. Teachers in the schools observed plan definitely for the children to have worth-while independent periods that fit into the total program and round out each child's day. Below are some of the practices observed. Assignments and Tasks In all schools, children are expected to complete assigned tasks in their independent periods. They may, for example, have items to write for the school paper, be responsible for planning a school lunch menu, or be asked to prepare a report on a magazine article. Pupils who need practice in improving skills in reading, writing, or arithmetic use part of their independent periods for this work. Teachers guide pupils in their assignments. Many teachers make assignments and expect the pupils to carry them out. In a number of schools, however, pupils are encouraged to help decide on their own assignments. Teachers try to see that each child is developing in the way most appropriate for him. John, for example, may tend to be too dependent. He asks for guidance from teachers or others more than should be necessary. Hoping to make him more independent, the teacher turn his attention first to things he can do with confidence, or she gets him to turn the tables and help others in ways of which he is capable. Mary may be too aggressive. The teacher guides her in learning how to help a younger child develop initiative. In all the children's independent work, the teacher tries to keep alert to the needs of individuals. It is by closeness and warmth of association that she comes to know how to help each one. A good many of the schools visited are concerned about unwise and seemingly unlimited use of workbooks. Some have ceased to use them. They believe that workbooks generally discourage initiative and creativeness. A supervisor in one school writes thus: "The curriculum committee voted out workbooks in every grade but the first. First-grade teachers are encouraged to develop their own workbook activities when they are needed. In art, patterns are expected to be non-existent." Through workbooks used indiscriminately, some supervisors say, children sometimes have to repeat again and again skills they already have achieved. Some feel that workbooks demand teacher time and energy that could better be used in more educative ways. Some use workbooks only when specific needs can be served by them. Hobbies, Diaries, and Favorite Work or Fun Opportunities that foster creativeness arise when children are encouraged to choose activities they like. One spring, for example, the schools of a certain city centered their annual exhibit of children's work on the theme, "When Children Work Alone." The materials exhibited included handcraft objects built or made by individuals, diaries, paintings, original poetry and other creative writing, sketches, collections, and hobbies of different kinds. The purpose of the exhibit was to provide opportunity for pupils and teachers to share ideas and for parents to see what their children had done. The exhibit was left up for 3 weeks. A schedule was worked out to provide opportunities for children and teachers to visit it. The visiting was done after school on a voluntary basis. More than 600 teachers attended. Some returned several times. Many teachers and children said the exhibit gave them ideas to incorporate in their own programs. In a city in Colorado, arrangements were made for children to choose individual activities in connection with long-time class projects. In a class study of the United States, for example, one boy chose to study soil. His work included making a soil map with little bottles of different types of soil attached to each State. He collected samples by writing and by traveling. He worked on his project largely during his independent periods. Helping Others Children often help one another when the teacher is busy. Pupils in a classroom in Indiana, for example, are working out ways of improving their ability in the tool subjects independently of the teacher. While the teacher works with small groups, other children help one another. Sometimes several good readers sit in with. a group of slow readers and try to decide what the difficulties are and how each of the slow readers can improve his skill. When they can tell what kind of work is needed they give it. Free-choice reading and reading aloud to others are activities for the inde |