period of work is several months longer, including the labeling and packing of the cans after the actual canning is completed. Although still engaged in the most lowly paid occupations in the industry, the Japanese are earning more than when first employed in 1901. They were then paid only at the rate of $1.10 per day. At present most of the members of this race earn $35 or $40 per month, with board and lodging, a substantial increase over the former $1.10 per day. The normal day's work is eleven hours. During the large part of the year in which the canneries are not in operation the Japanese find their way into various occupations. The most common of these are railroad construction and maintenance of way, agriculture, and wood chopping. A considerable number, however, are of the student and city classes, and are employed for the greater part of the year in the urban centers as domestics or in the various city trades. Thus the earnings of the cannery hands in these localities are drawn from diverse sources. Data were secured from 90 Japanese employees from various establishments in Washington and Oregon with regard to their yearly earnings from work of various kinds. They are as follows: The smallest earnings were $196, while the largest were $760. The average of the yearly earnings for the group of 90 was $378.27. Practically all of the Japanese work under the "boss" system. In the great majority of establishments the Chinese have contracts for canning the fish, and they employ Japanese through "subbosses.” Where the packers do not let the work out to Chinese contractors, they, too, secure their Japanese laborers from "bosses." Formerly these "bosses" were paid from $2 to $3 per man supplied, but this system had been superseded by one under which the employer pays nothing to the "bosses" direct, but the latter derive their income from fees for securing employment deducted from the wages of the men, and from profits on merchandise and board furnished them. However, where they are employed by Chinese contractors, the latter as a rule furnish them with board. Where the "bosses" deal directly with the white employers, they are allowed $7.50 or $8 for each man per month for boarding the men under them, in addition to the regular wages. Ordinarily a "boss" makes about $15 per man during the canning season. Wages are paid at the close of the season, but advances of supplies and cash up to the amount of $50 are made by the "bosses" to the men. The situation in the Alaska salmon canneries is different from that in Oregon and Washington in a number of respects. Practically all of the Japanese are employed by Chinese contractors through bosses of their own race. The distant location of the field, the long journey involved, and the impossibility of changing 66 from place to place during the season serve to give the "bosses " unusual powers over the men. The latter are of a roving type, and rated as of a low order by their fellow-Japanese of the cities. They are sent out in sailing vessels from San Francisco, Astoria, Portland, and Seattle, late in the spring, and return early in the autumn. Their work is the most unskilled and disagreeable offered by the industry-similar to their employment in the canneries of Washington and Oregon. The Chinese in nearly all cases do the skilled work. Wages are paid entirely by the season, which, including the time spent on the voyage, amounts to above five months. During the heaviest "run" the men work from sixteen to twenty hours per day. Season wages vary from $160 to $225. The majority, however, earn less than $200. These wages are in addition to board and lodging. The book earnings, however, do not furnish a true index of the actual earnings of the men, for under the "boss" system, as it has generally operated in the past, a large part of their earnings have been taken from them by exploitation. Indeed, the individual is considered fortunate who returns to the home port with as much as $30 to his credit. The exploitation carried on by Japanese "bosses" controlling Alaskan cannery laborers is worthy of especial comment. They secure the men through subagents (usually connected with Japanese boarding houses in the cities), who receive for this service a commission of $5 per man, which is deducted from the wages of the men engaged. An advance is usually made by the packers to the "boss" in the spring of the year on the basis of the labor to be furnished. With the money so obtained the cost of securing the laborers is paid, they are advanced enough money to equip themselves for the trip, and a stock of goods is secured for boarding the men. In addition to these expenditures an extensive stock of eatables is bought, which is destined to be sold at high prices to the men en route. This is made possible by the fact that the food regularly furnished is poor and frequently insufficient in quantity, costing the "boss" about $3 per month per man. The men buy these extra eatables and gamble at tables conducted by subbosses, on credit, their expenditures and losses being deducted from their total earnings for the season. The income of the "boss" is thus obtained from two sources-the sale of goods to the men at monopoly price and the profits realized from gambling. This income is comparatively large for the ability represented; frequently, if not generally, amounting to from $2,000 to $5,000 for the year. It is entirely the result of the exploitation of the wages of Japanese laborers, since as much or more than the total sum paid by the packers to the "bosses" is spent in wages and regular board for the men. The Japanese keep very much to themselves in the camps, usually lodging and eating together. They are given to gambling among themselves and often to excessive drinking. Though the Japanese are industrious the canners prefer the Chinese, on the ground that they are more careful and conscientious workmen and more satisfactory in contractual relations. The preference is so decided that it is not unusual for the companies to stipulate in their contracts with the Chinese "bosses," who enter into contract to do the cannery work, that the number of Japanese employed shall not exceed the number of Chinese. The Filipinos, who have been employed in the Alaska canneries in small numbers, are also preferred to the Japanese. Though the Japanese have been employed as fishermen in British Columbia, they have not been employed in this capacity by the packers in Alaska, Oregon, and Washington. On the coast of California, however, a few hundred have been engaged in fishing on their own account. The largest groups of these are about Monterey, where they numbered about 150 in 1909. The more important markets of the State, however, are controlled almost entirely by the Italians and chiefly by those from the southern Provinces. JAPANESE EMPLOYED IN FRUIT AND VEGETABLE CANNERIES OF CALI FORNIA." Japanese were first employed in fruit and vegetable canneries about twenty years ago, but they have never occupied an important place in the industry. Together with Portuguese, Italians, Greeks, and other recent immigrants, they have gradually filled the places vacated by the north European immigrants and Chinese, who have found more remunerative employment elsewhere. Few of the Japanese were employed in canneries before 1900, and since that time their increase has not been rapid. Among the employees of 19 canneries investigated were 237 Japanese. The 201 males constituted 16.3 per cent of the total number of that sex, and the 36 females 2.2 per cent of the total number of that sex, employed in the establishments investigated. Of a total of 2,890 employed, 756 were native females, 357 native males. Among the 1,777 foreign-born were 860 Greeks and Italians, 172 Portuguese, 132 Chinese, and 58 Mexicans. The Japanese have been employed chiefly by canneries operated by Chinese, who began to employ Japanese when the supply of Chinese laborers became too small. The Japanese are given employment, however, in a number of establishments operated by white men, but a number of white employers discriminate against them to the extent of not employing them at all. Where employed in canneries they are under the control of "bosses" who arrange for their work and through whom their wages are paid. While in some cases they earn less than do white persons in similar occupations, discrimination in wages is not general. The differences are due largely to the occupations at which they work. Of the 201 male Japanese employees from whom data were secured, more than one-half were cutting and canning fruit, work which is paid on a piece basis and which is almost monopolized by women. The Japanese work at the same piece rates as do other employees. The 34 Japanese women who reported their earnings were all canners or cutters. Of the remaining 75 males, 44 were common floor laborers, 24 were employed in the cooking and soldering rooms, 4 were used in warehouse work, and 3 were foremen or clerks. Of the males, 72.2 per cent earned less than $2 per day, while of the total foreign-born only 64.2 per cent earned less than $2 per day. Of the Italians and Greeks only 58.1 per cent earned less than $2 • See "Immigrant Labor in California Fruit and Vegetable Canneries." per day, as did 57.1 per cent of the Portuguese. Moreover, only 12 Japanese earned more than $2.50 per day, while 186, or 44.3 per cent, of the Greeks and Italians earned more than $2.50. The apparent difference between the wages of Japanese and Italians and Greeks is accounted for chiefly on the basis of occupation. Many of the Italians are used as subforemen and in the more responsible positions at higher wages than pieceworkers and common laborers command. The Japanese women earn less than others of the more recently arrived races. None of them earned as much as $2 per day, whereas 29 of the Portuguese and 57 of the Italian and Greek women earned $2 or over per day. No discrimination in the piece rates paid was noted, however. Information was obtained concerning six vegetable canneries near the lower Sacramento River, which conserved asparagus almost exclusively. Here the Chinese have always done most of the work of canning since the inception of the industry ten years ago. They were formerly used for the warehouse labor also, but because of their increasing scarcity have recently been replaced at this work by white men and Japanese. Japanese were employed in one establishment, but discharged as being unsatisfactory. The foreman of this cannery stated that Chinese were cheaper at $1.50 per day than Japanese at $1.25. In another cannery, however, 20 Japanese who were employed in the warehouse and paid at the rate of 15 cents per hour with lodging, were proving satisfactory to their employers. They were also used recently as common laborers (cleaning rusty cans) by another firm, but were not employed at the time of the investigation. In the other asparagus canneries no Japanese were employed in the early summer of 1909. JAPANESE EMPLOYED IN COAL MINES IN THE WESTERN DIVISION." Something less than 2,000 Japanese are employed in the coal mines of southern Colorado, New Mexico, Wyoming, and Utah. The great majority of the 27,000 to 30,000 persons employed in the coal-mining industry of these States are immigrants from south and east European countries and Mexico. The Japanese were first employed in Wyoming in considerable numbers about 1900, when during a period of labor scarcity the operators of Wyoming secured" "of gangs laborers through a Japanese employment agency on the Pacific coast. Other Japanese entered the mines from the railroad section “ gangs in the locality because of the larger earnings which might be made. In southern Colorado, New Mexico, and Utah, on the other hand, few Japanese were employed in the mines previous to 1903. In that year they were used as strike breakers. Those who entered the mines of southern Colorado at this time have left the work, a few at a time, for agricultural pursuits, until at the present time they constitute a relatively unimportant part of the labor supply. In New Mexico a somewhat greater number have remained in the mines, while in Utah their numbers have increased materially in recent years. That no Japanese are employed in the coal mines of northern Colorado is due to the complete unionization of the district and the opposition of the a See "Immigrant Labor in the Coal and Coke Industry in the Western States." union to all oriental labor. In Washington, while the field is less completely organized, the hostile sentiment displayed in the community has been strong enough to preclude the employment of Japanese as miners. Of 65 Japanese employed in southern Colorado and reporting their earnings 4.6 per cent earned $3.50 and under $4 per day, while 69.2 per cent earned $3 and under $3.50, and 15.4 per cent $2.50 and under $3. The remaining 10.7 per cent earned $1.50 and under $2.50. No discrimination in wages was noted in this district between the Japanese and other races. Members of this race are segregated as much as possible at their work. Furthermore, they live in separate camps, and all of their business is managed by "bosses." Their camps are often outside of the town limits. Other races employed are extremely hostile to the Japanese, classing them in this regard with negroes. Wherever they are employed, however, the superintendents regard them as satisfactory miners. The situation in New Mexico is essentially the same as that in southern Colorado. A somewhat larger proportion of Japanese are employed. For example, 90, or 7.9 per cent, of the total number of employees on the pay rolls of the mines investigated in the northern part of the State were Japanese. Of these, 88 were miners or loaders, 1 a common laborer, and 1 a foreman. Their earnings, however, were somewhat larger than in Colorado. During the month covered by the pay rolls secured the percentage earning each specified amount was as follows: nese. Num- 88 2.3 3.4 1.1 4.5 5.7 11.3 17.1 13.6 25.0 12.5 3.4 $3.60 Their average daily earnings were $3.60, while the average for all miners and loaders was $3.26. Furthermore, the Japanese earned on the average a greater amount per day than did the more recently arrived European immigrants and the Mexicans, except the Italians, whose average daily earnings were 3 cents higher than those of the Asiatics. The average daily earnings of the races most conspicuous in mining and loading were as follows: Italian Montenegrin $3.63 Bulgarian_. $2.97 2.96 2.87 The number of Japanese employed in the coal mines of Utah has increased steadily since their introduction in 1903-4 with other races to fill the places of the "trouble makers" connected with the coal strike. The number employed in 1905 was 46; in 1908, 114; in 1909, 126. Laborers of this race are supplied to the operators by a Japanese contracting agency in Salt Lake City. As in the other sections, |