to have been a close relation between the wages paid to them as section hands and as laborers, engine wipers, and car cleaners in the shops. Though paid somewhat more than for track work, frequently 15 cents per day more, their wages have usually been less than those paid the men they have replaced. "In one shop the Japanese, when introduced, were paid 16 cents, while those whom they replaced had been paid 18 cents per hour. In another place they were set at work at 12 cents per hour where the various white races which had been employed had received 18 cents per hour. In a third place they were given work as car cleaners at $1.25 per day where white men had been paid $1.50. In a fourth instance Japanese at $1.25 replaced white men who had been paid $1.60 as engine wipers. In still another shop they began work as engine wipers at 15 cents whereas the white men they replaced had received 20 cents per hour. The substitution elsewhere in these occupations seems to have been made on much the same terms.

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Beginning at a lower rate of pay the Japanese, when not serving as helpers, are still very generally paid less than the members of other races doing the same kinds of work. In one city there are three railway shops. In one of these Japanese are employed as laborers at $1.25 per day; in the second, Greeks and Italians at $1.80 per day ; in the third, Austrians and Italians at $1.80 per day. One railway pays Japanese laborers in one of its shops $1.60 per day, all white laborers $1.90. Usually, however, the differences are less great. The highest rate paid Japanese laborers is $1.75 per day; the lowest, $1.25, and the rates most frequently paid are $1.35, $1.40, and $1.60. As engine wipers they receive from $1.25 to $1.60 in the several shops investigated. As car cleaners they earn from $1.25 to $1.60 per day. As boiler washers they earn from about $1.60 to $1.80 per day; white men when employed somewhat more." a

The Japanese are, however, usually paid more than the Mexicans as unskilled laborers in the shops. In one city, for example, the Mexicans employed as common laborers in one shop are paid $1 per day, the Japanese similarly employed in another $1.20. Other instances of the same kind might be cited, though the two races are not often employed in the same localities, thus limiting possible comparisons to a few cases.

Finally, passing over the employment of Japanese as janitors and cleaners of station buildings on a few of the railroads included in the investigation made by the Commission, the members of this race were found to be employed in the department of bridges and buildings of one. These men were employed at pumping stations, tunnels, and in similar places, and as cooks, however, and not as regular members of "crews" engaged in construction work. That they have not been more extensively employed is no doubt partly explained by the fact that provision must be made for boarding and lodging the workmen while not at work in large towns, and that the Japanese prefer to work and live in their own groups and are not welcomed by the other races as members of general groups. In some instances the inconvenience involved in making separate provision for them has caused the rail

66

" Quoted from Immigrant Laborers Employed by the Steam Railways of the Rocky Mountain and Pacific Coast States."

ways not to employ Japanese, Mexicans, or negroes at all as laborers in the department of bridges and buildings.

Numerous references have been made to the way in which Japanese are secured for railroad work. Those employed in maintenance of way are always obtained through a Japanese "contractor" and those employed in the shops or elsewhere are usually obtained in the same way. One corporation in Seattle supplies two railroads, one in Portland four, one in Salt Lake City two. In other cases, with one exception, there is a separate contractor for each road. Late in the spring of 1909, 8 of these men or firms were supplying some 5,600 laborers as section hands and still others for the shops.

These Japanese agents collect their men in various ways. Some apply directly to them for work, most have been obtained through boarding houses, while others are "recruited" through advertising and the more usual methods used with other races in Seattle, Portland, San Francisco, and Los Angeles. The most important of these methods has been the second, where the laborers have been collected through large boarding houses.

Each of the large boarding houses in the coast cities has or has had affiliations with large Japanese contractors, or has been conducted by a contractor as a means of collecting laborers. The hotel keepers' organizations in San Francisco and Seattle establish the fee which the contractor shall pay the boarding-house keeper for each man obtained through him-at $3 in the one city, at $1.50 in the other.

"Agents for Japanese labor invariably collect from each person employed as a railroad laborer an "office fee " or " interpreter's fee" of $1 per month and a second payment of so much per day or a given percentage of their earnings. Two of the largest of the contractors, and several of the smaller ones collect, in addition to the interpreter's fee, 5 cents for each day worked. One of these formerly collected 10 cents per day without an interpreter's fee, but in 1904 changed to the present rule in order to compete more successfully for laborers. Another agency collects an interpreter's fee of $1 per month and 5 cents for each day worked during the month up to 20, thus limiting the total deduction on account of the agency to $2 per month. Two agencies collect only 2 cents per day for each day worked, in addition to the interpreter's fee of $1 per month.

"It may be pointed out in passing that this arrangement is very much more satisfactory to the laborers than where each "job" is paid for in a lump sum commission. It, at any rate, protects the men from the graft sometimes practiced by foremen and agencies cooperating in collecting, hiring, and discharging laborers." a

As a second source of profit the contractors usually supply their men with most of the goods they consume, or else act through auxiliary organizations which do. Scarcely ever is the supply business absent. It is well worth the while, for the Japanese, for the most part, consume Japanese wares, and as the laborers are far removed from towns, these can usually be had only from the contractor who finds employment for them. It is estimated that 30 per cent of the food used is American in its origin and 70 per cent Japanese. Most

• Quoted from "Immigrant Laborers Employed by the Steam Railways of the Rocky Mountain and Pacific Coast States."

of this Japanese food and a small part of the clothing and miscellaneous goods purchased are supplied by the contractor.

If property accumulation is a good criterion, the commissions and profits from supplies sold have given the larger contractors a handsome profit. However, the contractor himself, or his interpreters through whom he usually acts, looks after all difficulties and disputes arising between laborers and foremen or other representatives of the company in regard to work, wages, bunk cars, and other matters. He does much more than find employment for laborers and supply them with goods at a profit.

As a general rule, the Japanese employed in railroad work are paid directly by the company, deductions to cover commissions and supply bills due being made, which sums are paid directly to the agency. However, the several railway companies supplied with laborers by two of the largest of the Japanese agents pay these agents for the men supplied, they, in turn, paying the laborers after deducting commissions and sums due for supplies purchased.

JAPANESE EMPLOYED IN THE LUMBER AND TIMBER INDUSTRIES OF OREGON AND WASHINGTON."

In 1909 more than 2,200 Japanese were employed in the lumber industry in Oregon and Washington, while in 1905 the total number of employees of all races in the industry was 35,307. The first Japanese employed in the lumber mills were deserting sailors, whose employment in the industry is reported to date from about thirty years ago. Their numbers were small, however, and they did not constitute an important factor in the labor supply until after the year 1900, when they numbered less than 350 and were employed in only a few mills. Within the last decade, however, there has been a large immigration of Japanese to the Northwest and especially to Seattle. For example, between the years 1901 and 1908 no less than 20,011 entered the ports of Seattle and Portland. When the unusually prosperous times preceding the financial stringency of 1907 gave rise to a scarcity of labor, this Japanese immigration was drawn upon along with a much larger number of recent immigrants from Europe and a smaller number of East Indians, for lumber mill work. It is estimated that in 1907, 2,685 members of this race were working in the lumber mills of Washington alone. In 1909 they were employed in 67 mills and logging camps in Washington, and numbered 2,240, while some 200 Japanese were employed in the lumber and shingle mills of Oregon.

The Japanese have never been employed in the majority of the mills of the Northwest, though the mills in which they have been employed have been among the largest. In fact, because of race prejudice exhibited by white employees, they have been discriminated against to the point of being refused employment in most of the mills. In one instance 50 Japanese sent out from Portland were not allowed to leave the train by the inhabitants of the mill town. In another community they were used to replace Italians at lower wages,

• See "Immigrants in the Lumber and Shingle Industries of Oregon and Washington."

Census Bulletin 77, 1905, "Lumber and Timber Products."

but so strong was the sentiment against them that they found it difficult to live in the locality. Partly as a result of this prejudice against them the Japanese, with few exceptions, have been able to enter the least remunerative occupations only. In fact, of 231 employed in mills investigated and from whom personal information was obtained, 89 per cent were common laborers, usually laborers in the lumber yards, oilers, or teamsters-the most unskilled and least remunerative work offered by the industry.

Where the Japanese have been employed they have, without exception, been paid lower wages than men of other races engaged in the same occupations. In the one mill investigated where they were employed in skilled and semiskilled positions also, their wages were considerably lower than those paid to white men employed in similar positions in other mills. While the Japanese were employed as trimmers, edgermen, planing-mill feeders, lumber graders, lath-mill men, and carpenters at wages varying from $1.65 to $2 per day, at other mills the white men engaged in these occupations were paid from $2.75 to $3.50 per day. Of 205 Japanese common laborers 76 earned $1.25 per day, 84, $1.50, and 45, $1.75. Nineteen others were employed at difficult or semiskilled work and earned from $2 to $2.25 per day. The wages paid to other men, including the small number of East Indians, engaged in common labor are higher than those paid to the Japanese similarly employed. While "white men are paid $1.75, $2, and $2.25 as common laborers, Japanese are paid $1.50, $1.60, and $1.75, and rarely $2, and in one mill employing a large number they receive only $1.25 per day.

Corresponding differences have from the first existed between the wages paid to Japanese and white laborers employed in this industry. The average earnings of 48 Japanese employed in lumber mills in northwestern Washington was $515.75 for an approximate average of 11.2 months in employment during the twelve months immediately preceding the investigation in the spring of 1909.

As already indicated, the employment of the Japanese in comparatively large numbers in lumber mills has been coincident with a period of rapid industrial expansion. They not only worked for less than other men, they were also more easily secured, for they are obtained here, as in most other industries, through a contractor or bookman, and are generally reported by employers to be more steady and less inclined to leave their employment for other work than are the members of other races.

On the whole, the mill managers who have employed Japanese are of the opinion that they are more satisfactory at the rate of wages they are paid than the white men available for work as common laborers at the wages they command in the industry. While the Japanese have never been employed in the majority of the mills and have been discharged from some others, this has been due chiefly to the race feeling exhibited against them and seemingly closely connected with the facts that they are of a different race and tongue and have always worked for lower wages than were paid to white men.

Organized opposition by the Shingle Weavers' Union and the presence of conditions which for efficiency require a kind of apprenticeship explain why the Japanese have been employed in only a few shingle mills, and in so far as could be ascertained had been dis

charged from these. In a few instances the Japanese have established shingle mills of their own. However, the developments in this direction have been slight, because a relatively large capital is required for investment in plant and timber, and because the Japanese have been unable to secure insurance on such mills since one owned by them in Washington was destroyed by fire. In so far as could be ascertained. only one mill is now owned by Japanese, and this was recently started in Oregon by a corporation doing business in Portland.

JAPANESE EMPLOYED IN THE SALMON-CANNING INDUSTRY IN WASHINGTON, OREGON, AND ALASKA."

Japanese laborers were first introduced in the salmon canneries on the Columbia River in 1901, and soon thereafter in the establishments located on Puget Sound and in Alaska. Few were employed, however, previous to 1904, but since then their number has increased greatly. A rough estimate of the number of Japanese engaged in canning salmon in 1909 is about 3,600 of an approximate total of 10,000, largely Chinese, but including some white men in the Puget Sound and Columbia River canneries and a rather large number of Indians and a few Filipinos in the Alaskan establishments. Of the 3,600 Japanese, 2,132 were employed in Alaska and about 1,500 in the Puget Sound and Columbia River canneries.

Of the 18 canneries located on the Columbia River, 16 were investigated by an agent of the Commission. These employed from 253 to 367 Japanese during the season, the number varying with the "catch of salmon. In 19 of 23 establishments on Puget Sound 953 Japanese were found to be employed, as against 1,024 Chinese. The Japanese are employed almost exclusively in the more unskilled and disagreeable parts of the work. They clean and cut fish, operate butchering and soldering machines, truck and pile cans, and act as helpers in the "bathrooms." It is only in exceptional cases, when Chinese are not obtainable, that the Japanese are used for skilled work. In fact, the Chinese are said to have used their superior position to prevent the Japanese from learning the processes requiring skill. The Chinese have taught other races the art of canning fish, but because of race antipathy they seek to retard the advance of the Japanese in the industry in so far as they are able.

The few unskilled Chinese employed in the canneries are paid more than the Japanese. For example, where they are employed in the same establishment, in northwestern Washington, the Chinese earn $5 per month more than do the Japanese. Where, as is usually the case, the earnings are paid by the season, rather than by the month, the difference is notable between those received by the Chinese and the Japanese. In the Columbia River canneries the latter race receive from $130 to $140 for the season's work, while the minimum amount paid to the Chinese engaged in similar work was $150. The packers operating on Puget Sound employ Japanese for a short season, ordinarily of about two months' duration, for which they pay from $60 to $75. On the other hand, the Chinese, most of whom are skilled workmen, average about $500 each for the season. However, their

a See "Salmon Canneries of the Columbia River and Puget Sound" and "Immigrant Labor in the Salmon Canneries of Alaska."