same will clearly show the importance of university study as viewed from the Russian standpoint. The classics form the basis of all study in the historico-philological section, and the students are required to show that they have a firm basis for work in classical philology. The studies are divided into obligatory and supplementary branches. The student must be able to interpret Greek and Roman authors, antiquities, literature, mythology, grammar, history, history of art, and philosophy. At least four of the classic poets and prose writers must have been thoroughly studied and the translations into Russian must be made in good style. The methods to be employed in scientific interpretation and philological criticism must also be studied. In philosophy a thorough knowledge of Plato and Aristotle is required as a basis for further philosophical development. In history, chronological and geographic data of the principal events of Greek and Roman plastic art when at its highest development, and also the special epochs of art development in the Christian world, are requisite. The examination covers either one of the following two supplementary groups of studies, viz, the linguistic and the historic. In the former is required a knowledge of Russian language and literature, from the oldest periods of history, with the general growth to the present time, the Slavonic tongues, with knowledge of the grammar, church literature, and the changes wrought in the different periods with the dialect forms, and the history of western European literature. This includes cognizance of such writers as Dante, Cervantes, Shakespeare, the French classical writers, Goethe and Schiller. The historic group covers the world's what they considered most needed, each in his own institution. The general request was for more salary, more instructors, and more fellowships. A committee for special inquiry was appointed in 1874. Its investigations led to the reforms of 1884, which urged the necessity of leaving disciplinary and administrative affairs to the Government, of adopting new methods of appointing professors, of requiring higher entrance examinations and good behavior as a prerequisite for the holding of university scholarships, guaranteeing liberty of instruction under Government supervision, limiting the power of the professors, and establishing an outside commission for the examination of students for graduation. The law of 1863 accorded little power to the curators [curator, a prominent person having the confidence of the Czar. He looks after the welfare of the university whenever an intermediary between the higher authorities and those of the university is required], but more to the university rectors. The law of 1884 empowered the curator to take charge of all practical instruction, to be held responsible for all disorders, and to take cognizance of all special matters; an inspector and several assistants to aid the curator; the rector to look after the organization of instruction and discipline; the dean, the curator, and rector to coöperate in bringing about better discipline in the university. The rector was to be appointed by the Czar and the deans by the minister. The minister could either appoint the professors or sanction the appointment of a candidate presented by the university authorities. By the earlier laws the universities were established according to the German plan, but later discussions tended towards a Russianizing of these institutions by appointing natives of the country, who, being cognizant of the country's aims, would exert an influence over the students preferable to that of a foreign element. By law of 1863 the Government controlled university examinations, and although objections were made to this plan by the different commissions

history, history of Russia, of the Slavonic peoples, and church history (with special stress laid upon the history of the Orientals, the Middle Ages, and the present epoch), history of the European peoples, and a general knowledge of all the principal events in Slavonic and Russian history, etc.

• The examinations by the commission in charge of the physico-mathematical section deal either with the domain of natural science or that of mathematics. Included under natural sciences as obligatory branches are chemistry, zoology with comparative anatomy and physiology, botany, mineralogy and geology with paleontology, physics, and phys ical geography. In chemistry the student obtains insight into organic, inorganic, and analytical chemistry, with a knowledge of chemical processes; in zoology a fundamental knowledge of zoötomy, anatomy, phys iology, embryology, histology, and biology, so that he understands the connection between those different divisions and can explain charts and drawings of the same; in botany he must have a fundamental knowledge and be able to analyze the plant world, especially the local flora; in mineralogy the same system of thorough study is applied throughout the mineralogical, geological, and paleontological fields; the course in physics is equally comprehensive, covering electricity, atmospheric changes, theory of light undulations, hydrography and meteorology, optical instruments, weights, and movement of fluid and gaseous formations, etc. In the section of physics the student has to show that he has made special studies in chemical analysis, in comparative anatomy and physiology, in the use of the microscope in the characterization of the different types of plants, in the physical and chemical attributes of appointed, it was decided in 1881 to create governmental boards of examiners. Dis-. cussions pro and con led to provision being made for the appointment of five boards of examiners, namely, the historico-philological, the physico-mathematical, the legal, the oriental, and medical. The chairmen of these boards were appointed by the minister. The doctor's diploma in medicine in a foreign university entitled to position on the medical board. The passing of the examination before the commission entitled to a diploma of first or second grade. (There is, however, only one. diploma in medicine, that of physician.) The preparation for academic degrees and the preparatory examinations before passing to higher classes were left to the university authorities, as the State examination did not prevent the faculties' examination of the student to find out his pedagogical status. A programme was provided for each faculty to which each student must adhere, but students were not obliged to attend lectures, and were allowed to pass from one faculty to another to hear lectures on any given subject. One feature of the university plan was the establishment, with the minister's permission, of a "Seminar," in which the student who has recognized ability in some specialty receives instruction with a view towards a higher development in the desired study. In the faculty for natural science, philology, and history the "Seminar" aimed to prepare teachers; in the legal faculty, to prepare jurists. The plan and length of existence of the "Seminar" depends upon the minister's decision. Each university sets aside $4,185 for remuneration of professors, room rental, purchase of books and school material for use of the "Seminar." The discussions pro and con as to methods of instruction in the different faculties brought about a more practical line of work, with fewer studies and less cramming for examination.

the earth as they pertain to agronomy, etc. In mathematics the student is required to show both practical and theoretical knowledge, by examination and otherwise, of the theory of numbers, higher algebra and geometry, theory of elliptical functions, the elasticity of bodies, practical mechanics and descriptive geometry, theory of gases, of light, differential and integral calculus, and in fact he scans the whole mathematical field, with its attendant branches of physics, mechanics, and astronomical calculations, hydrostatics and hydronomics.

The commission for the examination of the legal faculty indicates in its programme the diverse directions in which the lecturer may branch out, as it is considered that a detailed and systematic programme would narrow the field too much. The subjects treated are (1) Roman law with the history of the same (this includes knowledge of political history, and of religious, public, agricultural, and commercial life of Rome), and a knowledge of general legal concepts based on Roman law; (2) history of the laws of Russia, with the gradual development of states' rights; and civil, criminal, financial, religious, and trade laws; (3) the rights of government, with military and judicial laws, the rights of the gov erning powers towards the people; (4) the rights of the church and of the Russian church in particular, with knowledge of the Roman Catholic, Armenian, Gregorian, and Lutheran tenets; (5) police regulations, with the conditions governing the moral and material welfare of the people; (6) political economy and statistics; (7) civil and commercial law and procedure, with theoretical knowledge of the Russian civil code and of commerce by land and sea, and the rules governing international law; (8) criminal laws and processes; (9) laws governing finance, with a scientific knowledge of Russian income, monopolies, custom duties, etc.; (10) international law, with the political system of Europe from 1648 on, the rights of neutrality, etc.; (11) the philosophy of law, with the principal developments of the old classic world, and fundamental knowledge of the works of Plato, Aristotle, and Cicero; (12) encyclopedia of the science of law, with a clear understanding of law in both objective and subjective sense. The students must also have special knowledge of at least two of the above branches. The plan of studies includes eighteen hours a week in each semester, or one hundred and forty-four hours for the eight semestri; to Roman law, thirty-six hours; history of Russian law, sixteen hours; civil and commercial laws of Russia and their processes, twenty-two hours; Russian criminal law and processes, twelve hours; Russian governmental, church, police, and financial laws with political economy, eight hours each; international law, six hours; statistics, encyclopædic knowledge and history of the philosophy of law, four hours.

For the examinations by the medical commission the student must show a certificate of tentamen physicum which covers descriptive anatomy, histology, and embryology, physiology, physics, chemistry, pharmacy, pharmacognosia, zoology, botany, and mineralogy. He

must also show that he has been in attendance during ten semestri and has had practical experience, giving the number of cases he has treated and the reports which he has made on clinical cases, dissections, etc. The medical examinations extend over six weeks, and the course includes: (1) descriptive anatomy; (2) descriptive histology, with constructive knowledge of the organic development, use of the microscope; (3) pathology and the different changes perceptible in the body after death; (4) topographical anatomy with requisite operations; (5) physiology, with the use of instruments; (6) qualitative and quantitative pathological chemistry; (7) pharmacology, with use of medicines, mineral waters; (8) pharmacy with diagnoses, and the use of combinations in medicine; (9-13) special pathology and therapeutics, with practical demonstration of the same; (14-17) knowledge of surgery and ophthalmology, with demonstration of the instruments used, examination of the sick, with diagnosis of disease; (18) hygienic and sanitary demonstrations; (20) science of veterinary surgery and a knowledge of epizoötics. The course of study requires twenty-two hours of lecture or study, and practical exercises during each of the semestri, the subjects being arranged in a systematic course of from six to eight hours. in each branch. The students are expected but are not obliged to follow the courses. The plan arranged by the above law of 1884 has been the means of progress in university study; the examinations before the commission appointed by the minister give a true value to the diploma. Whether the student receives a first or second grade diploma depends upon the aptitude manifested at the examination. In the medical faculty the first diploma, that of a physician, gives the right to practice and to present one's self for the doctorate degree.

Higher-grade education is disseminated in quite a number of special schools. The St. Petersburg technological institute gives not only theoretical knowledge, but also demands the technical and practical use of the same. In the two lower courses the students study the theory of the fundamental branches and instrumental drawing; in the two following courses, mechanics and chemistry, from the scientific side, the mechanical part to include working drawings of machinery operated by water and steam power, the chemical, such drawings as are used in chemical laboratories, in glass and pottery manufactories, and also qualitative and quantitative analyses. The fifth course includes, in the mechanical division, more extended plans of machinery, foundry work, casting, turning, locksmiths' work, smiths' work; in the chemical division plans to be worked out in different chemical industries and the working out of such plans as would naturally enter into these technological branches. In free hours students go out with their professors to inspect the architecture of new buildings in process of erection, and visit manufactories and railroad workshops, thereby obtaining practical knowledge. The St. Petersburg Historico-philological Institute follows, in the main, the course of study of the historico-philological faculties of the universities, but difED 91-15

fers therefrom in having the lectures tend more towards the requirements of teachers in gymnasia, for which position some of the students are being fitted, and in having a course in pedagogics. Physical training enters into the course, as the students have nine hours each in the gymnasium.

The Demidoff Lyceum of Jurisprudence at Jaroslaw, has a corps of professors giving instruction in practical exercises in Roman law, political economy, in civil processes according to the laws of Russia, of the present and of the olden times.

The Lasarew Institute for Oriental Languages, in Moscow, has as special object the teaching of Armenians, although it includes students of all ranks, all confessions, and all nationalities. In the gymnasial division the Armenian language is obligatory; in the three higher classes Armenian, Persian, and Arabic literature, the Turkish-tartar, and the Iberian tongues. The lower course is theoretical, the upper more practical in character. In 1883 juridical studies were also introduced.

The polytechnic school in Riga has seven divisions-the agricultural, chemico-technical, geodetic, civil engineering, mechanical engineering, architectural, and commercial.

The Institute for Forestry and Agriculture, in Nowaja-Alexandria, has theoretical courses in agricultural economics, bee and silk culture, fish culture, veterinary science, geodesy, descriptive geometry, agricultural chemistry. Practical instruction is given in veterinary medicine, in farming, in garden work, in forestry, and in laboratory work. The stu dents also make excursions with the view of studying of botany and zoology. These and divers other special schools aim to train the youth in various directions leading to professions.

The general trend of instruction in the different grades of schools which form the school system is, if the generality of writers may be relied upon, to serve more and more fully to keep the Russian youth within a certain limit, so that he may become thoroughly cognizant of all branches from the Russian standpoint and that any tendencies towards German socialism may be quelled. The student is to learn to comprehend the needs of his own country, to prepare himself so that he may develop its riches, to become imbued with a knowledge of its institutions, and, in the lower classes, to be taught its village industries, so as to make use of his talents near home, rather than to drift away towards other lands.

SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND METHODS OF DISCIPLINE.1

The management of schools of all grades would seem to be rather a complicated affair in Russia, for, on account of the numerous school officials who have various duties in regard to schools, it appears that

1 Information in regard to this point has been obtained in part from manuscript furnished by Miss F. Toulmin Smith, of England, in part from lectures given by Dr. Himowich at Johns Hopkins University, and in part from other sources.