intricate designs required not only skillful hands, but also a finely developed sense of form and color. It is well known that the Swiss watchmaking industry has been essentially promoted by the 9 watchmaker's schools that served to introduce new devices and improvements.

One objection has been raised against trade schools; it has been said that they limit the horizon of their pupils instead of widening it; their attention is directed toward the production on a large scale which presupposes division of labor, while workshops require knowledge of all the bearings of a trade. This has led, in Hessia, to requiring the graduates of trade schools to pass through a supplementary course which teaches all the bearings of one trade. This unfavorable judgment of trade schools in Hessia is met by a different one, almost diametrically opposed to it, in Saxony, Würtemberg, Baden, Austria, and Switzerland, and may find its cause in the fact that the students are obliged to earn wages during the time they attend trade schools.

Since 1884 the secretary of the interior in Baden arranges from time to time in Carlsruhe for courses of instruction to trade masters for the sole purpose of making them acquainted with new industrial devices. These courses are intended for soap-boilers, tanners, shoemakers, watchmakers, metal-workers (etching and galvanopiastic), dyers, frescopainters, paper-hangers, and plumbers; the courses last one or two weeks each.

In Prussia the industrial-school system is comparatively little devel oped. In 1879 the 11 mining schools, with 437 pupils, were the only organized and successfully directed industrial schools of the Kingdom. The weaving and dyeing school at Crefeld was reorganized in 1883. It is a large institution, well attended, and influences the great silk trade of that town. In Hanover 13 weaving schools and 8 weaver's apprentice shops are found. In Westphalia there are technical schools for the metal industry. In other parts of Prussia are found schools of ceramics, and basket-braiding schools in Silesia and the provinces of Eastern Prussia. Magdeburg and Flensburg have special schools for joiners and wood-carvers. On the shores of the North Sea and the Baltic are situated 14 navigation schools, and, since 1887, 5 schools for river navigation have been opened. The trades unions maintain 294 trade schools (67 for barbers and hairdressers, 29 for painters and decorators, 24 for cobblers, lock and black smiths, 21 for bakers and confectioners, 20 for tailors, 10 for joiners, etc.).

Bavaria has 36 trade schools, of which 23 are in upper Bavaria, 3 weaving, 3 carving, 13 music, and 1 potter's school, and, since 1885, 5 schools for arboriculture.

Saxony has 29 trade schools for weaving, knitting, and passementerie, with 224 hand and 67 power looms, 132 knitting machines, and 30 passementerie handlooms. Five of these schools are day, the others are evening schools. The State also maintains 6 navigation schools on the Elbe River, while trade unions and associations maintain 28 lace

making, 1 embroidery, 4 straw-weaving, 11 house industry, 2 mining, and 39 other trade schools. That the trade schools of Saxony enjoy great confidence beyond the limits of the Kingdom is seen from the fact that the great German labor associations (notably the watchmakers, turners and woodworkers, tinners, millers, and tanners) support them. Würtemberg has 4 weaving schools, but no other trade schools.

Baden has 3 music schools (not conservatories, for they belong to a higher group of schools), 1 wood and ivory carving, 15 straw-weaving, 1 basket-braiding, and 5 blacksmith's schools.

Hessia has 11 carving schools and schools for decoration, lacquers, and hairdressing.

Austria can boast of a very extensive and splendidly directed plan for industrial education on the part of the state. The representatives of the trades do not much participate in their management or maintenance. Twenty-nine weaving schools, of which 2 are small institutions, having no power looms; 30 schools for wood and stone industry, for variety ironwork, ceramics, and glass industry; 16 for point-lace workers and artistic embroidery; 2 for the manufacture of musical instruments; 1 for leather industry; 1 for polishing of precious stones; 1 for toy manufacture, as well as 18 for basket-braiding. The state in 1889 published a provisional course for instruction in weaving schools to make a beginning in systematizing trade schools.

Switzerland has 9 schools for watchmaking, 2 for weaving, 2 for carving, 1 for toy-making, and 1 for basket-braiding.

(17) Workshops are connected with many industrial schools, espe cially with weaving schools, but sometimes we find them independent of any school. In that case practical and not academic studies are pursued. They resemble the former apprentice shops, but offer instruction on a large scale. Some writers recommend them, others see in them nothing but places for training of amateurs, and therefore object to them. It is said that stipends for traveling would be vastly better. This objection does not refer to the shops connected with weaving schools. Experience has found that poorly paid masters in school shops teach only the less instructive branches of a trade, hence the many complaints of apprentices that their training is one-sided, and the further complaint of the trades people themselves, who claim that these school shops compete with them in the labor market (buildings furnished gratuitously and unpaid labor enable these shops to sell their products at reduced prices). It appears prudent not to use the products of the apprentice shops as a means of meeting their expenses. Another danger is to be considered and to be carefully guarded against, namely, the often-found waste of time and material. The students are not trained in economy, but only in industrial skill. The technical leader of the shop must therefore be economically well trained. All the state railroad shops in Germany have apprentice shops. In Austria workshops are very frequently found connected with trade schools.

(18) Schools for the building trades.-The large number of builders (Germany in 1882 had 373,000 masons and 184,000 carpenters) justifies the existence of special schools for them. These schools do not attempt to prepare architects or engineers of the lower order, but simply skilled laborers for the building trades. The first of these schools was established in Paris, 1740; the first in Germany, in Munich, 1823; the second, in Brunswick, 1831; the third, a state institution, in Saxony, 1837. The requirement for admission is, or ought to be, one year of practical work in the trade. In Saxony these schools give instruction only in winter and have a course of four years. When such schools are kept open in summer they have one-seventh or one-tenth the attendance they have in winter. While in Saxony the course is restricted to masonry and carpentry, in other states machine-building is frequently connected with it. The tuition fee in Saxony is 30 marks, or about $8; in other states it is from $25 to $30, owing to insufficient state subsidy.

Prussia in 1891 had 9 schools for the building trades, with 1,825 students in overcrowded classes. In 1890, 870 apprentices were rejected for want of room.

The school in Brunswick alone had 1,000 students, mostly from Prussia. The state authorities in Prussia are contemplating the establishment of a tenth school of this kind.

Bavaria has 4 schools for builders, with 1,220 students. Saxony in 1891 had 5, with 702 students. Of the 154 hours devoted to instruction in the four years, 97 were devoted to drawing. The annual expendi ture for 4 of these schools was $22,560.

Würtemberg has a royal school for the building trade in Stuttgart. It was founded in 1845, and has 503 students, many of whom study surveying and machine-building.

Baden has one school at Carlsruhe, with 253 students, and gives practical exercises in workshops for masons and carpenters. Hessia 1 school, Darmstadt, 81 students; Anhalt, 1 school, maintained by state and city. Austria has special departments for the building trades in its 11 schools for foremen, which were attended by 1,336 students in 1890.

(19) Schools for foremen.—Most industrial continuation schools, giving instruction on Sunday or in the evenings, and at best only from 10 to 16 hours a week, can not prepare foremen or superintendents of shops for machine-building, spinning and weaving factories, etc., because it would require an additional number of years of study, and because the technical preparation of such men necessitates special training. The government in Saxony established in 1855 a school for foremen, the first of its kind. Requirements for admission: Age 16 years and a practical experience of two years in workshops. Length of course one year and a half. Hours per week, 35 to 45. These schools restrict themselves to what foremen really need, so that the students shall not

overvalue their capacity and forsake shop and factory to enter the drafting room. They are in fact intended for industrial under offi

cers.

Prussia has 4, Saxony 2, Austria 14 of such schools. The school in Chemnitz chiefly prepares soapboilers, dyers, and millers. Since its establishment in 1855 it has had 3,100 students. The Austrian schools together have at present 2,100 students who are preparing themselves for the building trades, technical mechanics, industrial arts, and chemical industries.

(D) INDUSTRIAL SECONDARY SCHOOLS.

(20) Secondary schools.-Pursuing the course of a polytechnicum presupposes graduation from a classical or a modern high school, and hence can not be completed before the close of the twenty-fourth year of age.

The education offered in a polytechnicum is much too high for common industrial purposes, because it is largely theoretical, and prevents the student from acquiring practical preparation and skill during the time when alone such skill can be acquired. Hence industrial secondary schools, which stand between the lower industrial schools and technical universities and offer the strict discipline of a high school, seem to meet the needs of the people. The gradation in trades and industries, both in kind and extent, necessitates a gradation in the schools preparing for them. The famous statistician Engel calculated the cost of education and maintenance of a laborer at 15 years of age to have been $888; that of a man with secondary education at 20 years of age to have been $2,904; and that of a student of a university at 25 years of age to have been $6,600. The absence of opportunities for obtaining a secondary industrial education must therefore work disad vantageously upon many strata of society, because it restricts them to a lower industrial education or lifts them up to an elevation where they can not support themselves, the absolutely necessary connecting link between elementary and higher schools being wanting. Lower schools are apt to push their talented students forward unduly, while polytechnica are forced to lower the requirements for admission, hence industrial secondary schools will aid the lower schools by relieving them of elements which are apt to disturb them, and relieve the polytechnica by drawing from them students insufficiently prepared. These schools will also relieve the nation of elements which are neither fish nor flesh-of that half-learned industrial element which claims to understand everything but knows nothing thoroughly. Civil engineers, poorly prepared and loose in every joint of true education, are found in great abundance, while the great centers of industry need men such as industrial secondary schools alone can furnish, viz, machine builders, common architects, bridge builders, surveyors, engi

neers, chemists, superintendents of small factories, planners and designers, etc. The great army of labor, consisting, as it does, of privates and a more than sufficient number of generals and colonels, needs more underofficers.

A remarkable short-sightedness is exhibited from time to time in discussing secondary industrial schools. Some claim that there is no urgent necessity for them, "because the technical universities furnish a sufficient number of students who fail in examination for the higher honors; hence offer men of the second rank, or small caliber, for technical pursuits." To this the answer is given that unfit industrial "officers of the staff" are not necessarily fit subaltern officers; that teachers of higher schools insufficiently prepared are not necessarily well enough prepared to be elementary school teachers. The Austrian minister of education in 1880 had to meet the objection to secondary industrial schools, "that they came into competition with polytechnica," by showing, statistically, that these secondary schools attracted elements which were neither wanted in the polytechnica, nor in fact could lay claim for admission there.

The Society of German Engineers, consisting of more than 6,000 members, declared, in 1889, that secondary industrial schools were a necessity to be provided for by the state. The industries for which they prepare are spread over the whole country. Such schools can flourish only when they are independent institutions, but not if appendages of other schools. If the State fails to establish them the larger cities are not likely to do so, and "private institutions with glittering programmes, unfulfilled promises, low requirements for admission, attractive uniforms for the boys, overcrowded classes, poorly paid and insufficiently prepared teachers, and pompous, emblazoned diplomas," will arise-institutions which are "worked" for a money consideration. The oldest secondary industrial school in Germany is the one established in 1836 in Chemnitz by the government of Saxony. It has since its establishment admitted 4,100 students and has served as a model for similar schools in other states, notably in Austria. The students when admitted have a high-school education and have acquired the privilege of serving as a volunteer in the army for only one year. The course of study for the technical mechanics' branch and technical chemistry is three and a half years, that for architecture three years. Prussia has no such secondary schools. How acutely this want is felt is seen from the fact that the polytechnica of Prussia have 29 per cent, while the same institutions in Saxony and Austria have only 10 or 11 per cent of special students, that is, students who are not gradnates of classical or other secondary schools. In the polytechnicum of Hanover this percentage rose to 47 per cent in the year 1890-91.