By means of subventions or advances to the communes, which in ten years (1878-1888) reached a total of 527,000,000 francs ($105,400,000), these laws have caused the construction or the repair of more than 20,000 schoolhouses (laws of June 1, 1878, August 2, 1881, and of June 20, 1885). They have provided in every department for normal schools for women (law of August 9, 1874), regulated the schools of manual apprenticeship (law of December 11, 1880, and decree of March 17, 1888), decreed the absolute gratuity of primary instruction (law of June 16, 1881), rendered primary instruction obligatory (law of March 28, 1882), regulated (law of October 30, 1886) in a general manner the organization of primary instruction, and decided that the public schools in the future should be exclusively under lay teachers; determined (law of July 15, 1889) the salaries of teachers should be paid henceforth by the state, with additions in certain cases specified of communal subsidies (for indemnity for residence); increased tenfold the subventions of the public treasury, and thus transferred from the families and the communes to the state the greater part of the responsibilities and expenses, which in 1887 reached a total of 173,000,000 francs ($34,000,000) expenditure by the state, the departments, and the communes, not including the cost of the construction and repair of schoolhouses.

The republic has ameliorated the condition of teachers, a policy in accord with the interests of a democracy. While recognizing that it is in general more advantageous for the teachers that they should depend upon the state rather than upon the communes, and that the greater part of the changes accomplished during the past fifteen years have been to the advantage of instruction, I have not seen without regret the abolition of school fees, which did not prevent the free admission of indigent pupils and which brought into the school funds from 16,000,000 to 18,000,000 francs ($3,200,000 to $3,600,000), and the systematic elimination of the religious orders from public instruction, whose coöperation regulated and superintended by the administrative authority was useful, and whose relegation to the private schools has divided interests and excited religious passions. The republic shows itself also to be inspired with the sentiment of democracy in constructing schoolhouses everywhere, as, after the year 1000, the middle age, inspired by religious faith, created new churches or rebuilt after a new type the ancient edifices.

While approving the policy of constructing suitable schoolhouses (and despite the critics it appears certain that the great majority of the buildings have not exceeded the requirements)," it seems to us that it

Within five years of the passage of the law in schools for boys.

2 According to the general report upon school constructions (relevé général des constructions d'écoles, 1er Juin 1878, 20eme Juin 1885) published by the minister of public instruction, and containing the details of the expenses incurred for each structure, the mean price of the new buildings (containing each one or two schools) has been about 30,000 francs ($6,000), not including the department of the Seine. The

would have been more economical to have proceeded more slowly and with sole regard to pedagogic interests. But I am departing from my subject in treating of these matters.

What seems to be certain and what it is important to consider here, is the fact that a vigorous impulse has been given to primary instruction by these measures taken together, i. e., the creation of schools, the division of large classes, the increase in the number of teachers, the attention given to their preparation, the improvement of material appliances, by the emulation even which has been excited between the laity and religious orders, in fine by the increase of the school attendance of both sexes. From 1872 to 1889 the number of schools increased by 11,000 and that of their teachers by more than 22,000; the number of church private schools increased by more than 3,000, while the private lay schools diminished, being ruined and paralyzed between the two great powers, church and state. The number of pupils entered upon the registers of schools of all classes during the same period rose from 4,722,000 to 5,623,000 (Algiers not included).

Since 1837, in fifty years that is, the number of pupils has more than doubled, although the population of France, including the European population of Algiers, has gained during the same time only 13 per cent. La population française, par M. E. Levasseur, Tome 2, pp. 481-485.)

Although the primary school attendance of France increased by 19 per cent from 1872 to 1889, the last five years of this period shows a decrease amounting to 10,009 pupils or a little less than two-tenths per cent. Small as this diminution is, the fact has excited attention and given rise to many explanations. M. Levasseur has made an exhaustive analysis of the statistics bearing upon this point with the following results:

The decrease noted is attributable wholly to the public primaries, which lost from 1884-85 to 1889-90 a total of 127,487 pupils as against a gain of 117,478 in private primaries. The absolute loss (10,009) is explained by the decrease of the school population (of age 6 to 13). From estimates based upon the census of 1886 and the ratio of births 1874 to 1880, M. Levasseur concludes that the school population fell from 4,729,000 in 1885 to 4,663,000 in 1890, a decline of 66,000, or a little more than 1 per cent. This it is seen is ample to cover the decline of less than two-tenths per cent in school attendance. The analysis of the statistics by departments confirms this view. For twelve departments which have lost each more than 2,500 pupils, M. Levasseur's estimates give a decline of 42,325 in school population. The census of 1891 fur

maximum has been 45,529 francs ($9,105) for the Rhone, and the minimum 7,982 francs ($1,592) for the Lozère. These buildings are not all of the same dimensions; the place for a pupil, which furnishes the most precise term of comparison, has cost on an average 306 francs ($61), the Seine not included, with a maximum of 480 francs ($96) Eure-et-Loir, and a minimum of 135 francs ($27) Vendée.

nishes proof of the correctness of this estimate, as these same departments are in the list of thirty-five whose total population was less in 1891 than in 1886. On the other hand, the twelve departments which showed an increase of school attendance from 1885 to 1890 are with a single exception in the category of thirty-two which had more inhabitants in 1891 than in 1886. As to the gain in attendance made by the private primaries at the expense of the public, M. Levasseur observes that this is a natural consequence of the enforcement of the law excluding church teachers from the public schools. The term allowed for giving full effect to this law in schools for boys expired November 1, 1891. If the change noted had not taken place it would have proved that no public school in which church teachers were formerly employed was reorganized as a private school after the removal of those teachers. This is neither true nor under the circumstances conceivable.1

PART III.

HIGHER PRIMARY AND CLASSICAL SCHOOLS OF FRANCE.

The department of secondary instruction in France (enseignement secondaire) includes only classical schools, i. e., lycées and collèges communaux, but secondary instruction as we understand the expression is also the province of the higher primary schools (écoles primaires supérieures), which are classified in the elementary department (enseignement primaire).

General characteristics of higher primary schools.-These higher primaries may be described as none lassical schools, which carry the instruction of pupils for two, three, or four years beyond the elementary primaries. The establishment for this higher instruction takes the name of complementary course (cours complémentaire), if it is annexed to an elementary primary school and placed under the same director; if installed in a separate building and under separate direction, it is recognized as a high school (école primaire supérieure). The complementary courses are limited to two years. If the school has a three years' course, it is called full or complete (école de plein exercice). A fourth year may be added.

Two classes of higher primary schools are recognized, viz, professional (technical) and nonprofessional. The former, by a decree of July 28, 1888, have been classed with the schools of manual apprenticeship under the joint control of the minister of public instruction and the minister of commerce and industry; they have as yet little more than legal existence and do not enter into the present consideration.

The term nonprofessional, applied to the ordinary higher primaries,

For the full discussion of this matter by M. E. Levasseur see Revue Pédagogique, June, 1892, 494-590.

is not intended to imply the neglect of manual or even of technical training, but simply that this training is not directed to the requirements of special trades or industries.

These higher primary schools are established at the instance of the departmental councils with approval of the minister of public instruction. The communes furnish the buildings and the funds for current expenses, assisted by a subsidy from the State. The directors, who are appointed by the minister, must have a special diploma (certificat d'aptitude au professorat des écoles normales et des écoles primaires supérieures) or its equivalent. The professors are also appointed by the minister; assistant professors, by the prefect, upon the nomination of the academic inspector. The only requirement for admission to the schools is the certificate of primary studies. The State encourages attendance by bursaries, which are awarded upon the results of competitive examinations. The course of instruction is determined by general programmes elaborated in the superior council of public instruction and approved by the minister.

Numerical progress.-Although authorized by Guizot's law of 1833, public higher primary schools made little progress until 1878, when a credit of $22,000 was allowed as a fund in aid of the communes for their establishment. Since that date appropriations for them have annually increased and there has been a corresponding increase in the number of the schools themselves, which rose from about 40 in 1878 to 226 in 1887, at which latter date there were also 431 complementary courses, the enrollment in both schools and courses being 30,725.1 There were also at the same date 47 private higher primaries, which raises the total enrollment to 38,441.2 In 1890-91 the enrollment in public higher primaries reached a total of 41,018,3 which is nine-tenths of one per cent of the total enrollment in public primaries. With this brief survey of the general status of the higher primary schools in mind we may form a better idea of the scholastic provision which they offer by considering more particularly the schools of this class in Paris.

Scholastic work. The programme maintained in the schools of the capital may be taken as an index of their highest scholastic development. As given in the following table it is uniform for all the higher primaries for boys, but undergoes some modifications in its application to the schools for girls:

1For a detailed account of the development of these schools see article by Felix Martel, "Ecoles primaires supérieures et Écoles d'apprentissage" (Recueil des monographies pédagogiques, tome 11).

2 Statistique de l'enseignement primaire, 1886-'87, pp. XLI, LXXXI.

3 Résumé des états de situation de l'enseignement primaire, 1890-'91, p. XVI.

The following particulars relative to the schools of Paris, from a special report on the subject, will help to give some idea of the conditions under which the above programme is developed.1

Number of schools and pupils.-In 1891 the city maintained for boys four day higher primary schools (Turgot, Colbert, Lavoisier, Arago), one high school with a boarding department (Jean-Baptiste Say), and for girls one day high school (Sophie Germain). A second high school for girls was authorized in 1884 and the buildings for the same commenced in 1890. The five schools in operation afforded accommodation for about 3,400 boys and 340 girls. The new school will make provision for about 450 additional girls. The actual enrollment in these schools in 1890 was 2,712 boys and 340 girls. All the schools have the full course, including the additional fourth year; 17.62 per cent of the boys and 29 per cent of the girls were in the last two years of the course. There were at the same time 2,178 pupils (981 boys, 1,197 girls) in complementary courses. Each year of the course corresponds to a class; each class is comprised in one or more divisions, as the number of pupils may require, the exercises being absolutely uniform for the divisions of the same year.

Teaching staff-The staff of a higher primary school at Paris comprises always a director, professors, and tutors (maîtres répétiteurs).

L'enseignement primaire public à Paris, tome II. L'enseignement primaire supérieur, M. E. Duplan, sous-directeur de l'enseignement primaire du Département de la Seine.