uage." Qualification as teacher for the upper classes of real-schools may be obtained without a knowledge of the ancient languages, according to the order of April 6th, 1859. The ability of teachers and examiners to deliver a well connected lecture on history in Latin now disappearing almost altogether, this requirement has been overlooked at examinations. Also, geography is treated on generally by questions connected with the examination in history, so that an actual facultas docendi in this branch can rarely be said to have been established.

In mathematics, the candidate must prove that he has penetrated the higher parts of geometry, spherical analysis and higher mathematics, so far as to be able to make successful applications of these to astronomy and natural philosophy. A special decree of December 14, 1839, ordains that beside a general review of this science and its application to everyday phenomena, a more comprehensive and thorough knowledge of all its parts, including modern discoveries and late publications, as well as of the more important problems of chemistry and the ability to explain suitable problems in a mathematical way, should be required. This order also fitly demands, "that in order not to limit the thorough study of mathematics and the natural sciences by too great requirements, the conditional facultas docendi shall be given to candidates who can teach mathematics and the mathematical parts of natural philosophy in all classes, and to those who can instruct in the natural sciences in all classes, and mathematics in the lower and middle classes only.

In philosophy and pedagogy, beside an exact knowledge of these sciences and a critical appreciation of the different systems of instruction and education, it should be required that the candidates are able to explain, in a scientific manner, the principles of logic, metaphysics and psychology; and with a general knowledge of the history of philosophy and of its different systems according to their characteristic peculiarities, they should combine a familiar knowledge of the changes philosophy has experienced by Kant, and since his time.

2. The conditional facultas docendi can be obtained by (a) those who, though they have sufficient knowledge to teach in the two upper classes, yet in one or more branches do not satisfy the requirements which must be exacted of every teacher, obtain this degree under the condition that they supply those deficiences, and they should not be admitted to the examination pro loco until there is reason to expect that their studies in the deficient branches have been perfected; (b) those who, in one or more of the chief subjects of instruction, possess only the knowledge required for middle or lower classes.

The second degree of teachership obtained great latitude by those regulations, and embraced candidates of the greatest learning and the most able capacities, as must frequently be found in limiting examination to certain branches of science, as well as those of great mediocrity who had not passed far beyond the maturity-examination. For this reason the instructions of Aug. 9th, 1831, made a discrimination between can

didates who had been examined for teaching in the upper classes, and such as had been qualified for the lower classes only. To the first ones the regulations on examination pro loco are applied, but they are not to pass a second examination pro facultate docendi, since the trial-year will give the authorities ample opportunity to convince themselves how far the candidate has endeavored to supply the deficiencies appearing at the examination. Even after the trial-year, the authorities, by bestowing the necessary attention on the candidates in their district, could not fail of opportunities to obtain all information on that point. These instructions proved important and wholesome by freeing the most capable candidates from the obligation of a second examination in such branches of knowledge, the study of which could be superficial with them only, while it would draw them away from their proper field of excellence. The school-collegiums, it is true, had a task they could only perform to some extent through the organ of the respective directors, as under the officelike way of conducting the business of the collegium, there rarely was left time and opportunity for any of the members to make personal observations. The experience of the next years following the issue of these regulations showed in many cases unsatisfactory results of the examinations and many deficiencies, which partly had their cause in the regulations themselves, partly in their application by the examiners, in particular by some professors of universities, who made too high requirements on the younger teachers of gymnasiums, and partly, too, in the spirit of the times, which was more bent on realities and unfavorable to the study of philology. In the circular of Feb. 3d, 1838, to the Royal Commission for Examinations, the "superficial mediocrity which satisfies so many candidates for higher teachership in their vocation," has been opposed by increased demands, principally by allowing the qualification for conditional facultas docendi only to the candidates heretofore described under (a); but it was left to the discretion of the commission for examination to bestow the "conditional facultas docendi on such candidates who in one or more of the principal branches of instruction possess only the knowledge required for the middle or lower classes, this permission to be limited to the lower classes exceptionally, when the candidates, with a security and clearness in fundamental knowledge, combined distinguished talent of explanation, an excellent skill in the treatment of the young, and a prepossessing appearance." A the same time the Department expressed a confident expectation that the commissions for examination would never lose sight of the fact, that the short course of three years at the university could only serve to collect a sufficient material; and therefore a complete, thorough, and in all parts finished knowledge, and a solid penetration into science, could not be required; much more they should see, if the candidates, besides a general knowledge, had actually laid the foundation in one of the principal branches, on which farther to build, and had an intelligent comprehension and spirited digest of the sciences chiefly cultivated by them at the

university. For able candidates of this class the Department in 1857 created a higher degree: conditional facultas for the middle classes.

On February 4th, 1838, a second circular to the school-collegiums was issued, in which the directors of gymnasiums were designated as suitable persons to advise young men in the upper classes, if not thought qualified for the profession, to desist from pursuing studies requisite for teachership, and to represent to abler ones the extent and difficulties of the object. But directors have seldom been in a situation to execute this charge. During the first ten years the proportion of candidates to vacant positions was unfavorable to the former, but soon after 1848 it changed, so that the want of teachers becoming more sensible, the Department of Instruction, under order of Oct. 16th, 1858, promised to assist students in the upper classes, in cases of poverty, if they felt a desire to devote themselves to the profession and were willing to pursue the necessary studies, beginning even at the time of their attendance at the gymnasium, and the directors were instructed to make proper application to the Department. It is not known whether recourse has ever been had to this measure. The general examination in religion and philosophy, as ordered by the cabinet order of Aug. 21st, 1824, was amended by rescript of March 3d, 1848, by requiring that the testimonials of candidates who had not passed this examination satisfactorily, should contain a provision that the candidate, before being definitely engaged, must prove in a second examination that he has acquired the requisite knowledge in the above sciences. It was chiefly intended thus to enlarge the knowledge of religion of future teachers, and to form teachers of religion not from theologians only. The same object was aimed at by a circular of the ministry of Von Raumer of Dec. 9, 1853, directed to the faculties of theology, requiring of them to introduce suitable lectures, which was done by some distinguished professors, but in spite of the desire repeatedly expressed under date of May 10th, 1865, they were never generally introduced by the faculties. The commission for examination, however, was instructed, from the year 1857, invariably to exact a report from the candidates for higher teachership, in how far and in what manner, during their academical studies, they had endeavored to increase and improve a scientific knowledge of religion.

By the above-named circular of Feb. 3d, 1838, theology and the Hebrew had been made the fourth principal part of examination; but by another cabinet order of Dec. 21st, 1841, candidates of theology, when they had obtained an excellent testimonial from the commission for examination in theology, should be considered qualified for teaching religion and the Hebrew language; and should be further examined only as to their ability and method of teaching; but in all other respects they should be subject to the same requirements as candidates for teachership. However, since it appeared desirable to gain men of sound education in theology as teachers of religion at secondary-schools, it was decreed by order of the Department, Aug. 10th, 1853, that candidates of theology,

who could produce the certificate of a well passed examination before the commission for theology, should be admitted to the examination pro facultate docendi. If they desire to acquire the qualification of "unconditional fac. doc.," they must satisfy all general conditions; the qualification for conditional fac. doc. may be imparted to them: 1, if by a trial lesson and oral examination, which is limited to didactic ability and the peculiar requirements of teaching in higher classes, they prove their ability to teach religion and the Hebrew in the first class of a gymnasium; and 2, if they prove their ability to teach (a) Latin, Greek and German, or (b) mathematics and natural science, in the third class of a gymnasium, or (c) either one of these subjects in the first class.

Catholic clergymen, according to rescript of March 26th, 1863, when they have been promoted by an inland university or by academic rule to the degree of doctor or licentiate of theology, are not subjected to an examination in theology in order to become qualified as teachers of religion, but their ability of teaching religion or the Hebrew in the different classes remains subject to trial by the commission of examination.

By ministerial rescript of Aug. 11th, 1854, members for the examination in French and English are added to the commissions. Candidates who wish to become qualified for teaching French or English, besides a thorough and fundamental knowledge of these languages and their literature, must respond to the requirements of general education demanded from all candidates. However, the rescript of the Department of May 23d, 1865, directs that the admission of teachers of elementary schools who have obtained the fac. doc. for those modern languages, as teachers of science at gymnasiums and real-schools, is generally not desirable.

For teachers of drawing at higher schools, to which heretofore teachers had been admitted without special selection, it was directed, April 2d, 1827, that only those should be proposed who were furnished with an attest of qualification by the Royal Academy of Arts, and that such should have preference among applicants. A circular of January 16th, 1828, directed the consistories and school-collegiums of the provinces to give to the Department an exact report on the qualification of each teacher of drawing at the gymnasiums in their province, on the manner and success of their instructions, and on their social position and relation. Since 1863 these candidates are required to submit to an examination by one of the royal academies of Art at Berlin, Königsberg or Dusseldorf.

As teacher of singing, no one can be engaged, since the year 1830, who has not given evidence of his ability to teach singing.

An examination for teachers of gymnastic exercises has been instituted by departmental rescript of March 29th, 1866, for which a commission, including a professor of anatomy, has been formed in Berlin. It takes place at the central institute for gymnastics (erected in 1851, and which proceeded from the central institute for the education of teachers of gymnastics by rescript of Feb. 6th;) under superintendence of the instructIt was considered desirable that the instructions in gymnastic ex

ors.

ercises should be confided to regular teachers of the schools only, and in order to educate such teachers, a course of six months, for eighteen pupils, was arranged in this institution, in which young teachers could take part without charge, and in particular cases were supplied with funds for their support during this time.

The incompleteness of the regulations for examinations of 1831, notwithstanding the many corrections and explanations, made a revision of the whole necessary, which was executed with the care peculiar to Prussian officials-the plan of a new order of regulations having been submitted to the provincial school-boards, to commissions of examination, and to experienced teachers, for their approbation.

Following the requirements of the law, a commission for examination was not easily constituted. In earlier times it was mostly composed of teachers, more recently counselors of instruction and professors of universities predominated. The first named undoubtedly understand best the necessary qualifications for the school, and require merits of a young teacher; but the limitations of their vocation renders it impossible for them to advance with the development of science, so as to be able to ascertain whether the period of study at the university has been profitably and practicably employed. The others, no longer familiar with schools, can not properly weigh their demands, and are apt to pass beyond the object of pedagogic preparation, or are led in preponderance by their own special scientific researches. The most suitable examiners are those who from the school teacher's chair have passed to that of the university.

IV.

PREPARATION OF TEACHERS FOR SUPERIOR SCHOOLS.

Prior to this century, there were no special arrangements at universities for the education of teachers for secondary-schools, the first being the philological seminaries, the oldest of which is at the University of Halle. By order of the Elector in 1695 and 1697, a part of the revenues of the convent Hillersleben was used for the benefit of some students of other faculties than that of theology, who would devote themselves to the study of "humanoria et elegantiorem literaturam," and for those who intended to prepare themselves for teachership at secondary-schools, under the special supervision of Prof. Cellarius, who read every day a free lecture for them, until he died in 1707, when this arrangement ended.

A purely philological seminary was founded in 1787, by the influence of Fr. A. Wolf, which was the first to educate for the profession of teacher separate from theology, and in so far created an epoch in pedagogy. This seminary had twelve regular members, who had already attended a university one year, and were permitted to remain in the seminary for two years only. The exercises of the seminarists, in which a great many of the students of other faculties took part, consisted in interpretation of ancient authors, discussions partly on theses, partly on