without the approbation of the superior consistory, and the instruction for the superior school-collegium of Feb. 22d, 1787, ordered that a teacher should be appointed only on the ground of a testimonial from this authority. The candidate proposed for a vacant teachership was presented to the consistory or school-collegium of the province, which referred him to one of their members, generally to an experienced teacher. In this much depended on the character and learning of the latter, and these examinations lacked uniformity. Gedike, who, as a member of the superior school-collegium, was often charged with like examinations, gives a detailed sketch thereof in the programme of the gymnasiums of Frederickswerder of 1789 (collected writings on schools, II. pp. 90.) By the patrons of city schools, as Jong as teachers were mostly theologians, the evidence of their education for the ministerial office was generally deemed sufficient; likewise the recommendation of a distinguished scholar, or trial lessons, or the degree of Bachelor or Master of Arts given by a university, or the testimonials of their attendance at seminaries for theology, philology or pedagogy. But this custom proved more and more insufficient for the higher schools, since newly revived humanitarianism penetrated more deeply into them, and they no longer selected their teachers from among the candidates of theology, but from candidates who had been specially trained for higher teachership and proved more suitable. Thus, when the centralizing organization of the State extended also to the field of education, an examination of candidates for higher teachership, legal throughout the State, was ordered by the edict of July 12th, 1810, which at first was made by deputations of the Department of Public Instruction, and latterly by a special commission of examinations. The regulations for examination had been drawn up by W. von Humboldt, Schleiermacher and Süvern. Of the motives, Humboldt had stated that such examinations are the only barrier that could be opposed to the abuse of the rights of patronage. It would honor the profession of teachers in the State, if every one who enters it had first to give evidence of his qualification. Fr. A. Wolf also declared himself in favor of not admitting any to teach at the secondary schools, though they had graduated at universities, unless they had been examined and authorized by the commission of examinations. The examination should consist in written theses, oral questioning and trial lessons. The commission could dispense with one of these. Those who, after presenting a dissertation in Latin and passing the regular oral examination at one of the faculties for philosophy of one of the State universities, had obtained the degree of Master of Arts, were not subject to further examination, only to a trial lesson. With members of seminaries for classic schools, the examination taken at their entrance by the director of the same, was sufficient. Distinguished foreigners called to professorships by the Prussian Department of Instruction were not subjected to any examination. The certificate given pointed out distinctly in what branches the candidate was well posted or weak, what proportion his skill in teaching held

to his knowledge, and the degree of his general qualification was indicated in the authority to teach in secondary-schools. The examination was called "examen pro facultate docendi." Those proposed for a permanent professorship, had to pass an examen pro loco, in which regard should be had only to the necessary knowledge and skill for the particular position. To dispense from examinations was the privilege of the Department for Public Instruction. These regulations took effect, Jan. 1st, 1813. The requirements made of candidates at first were trifling, and the taking effect of the regulations fell in a time when Mars was worshiped more than Minerva; but when, after 1815, studies could again be pursued undisturbedly, a continually increasing zeal for the study of philology and philosophy manifested itself, and gradually a class of teachers, scientifically educated, formed itself, the like of which could not be found easily at any other time, and towards which chief counselor Johannes Schulze largely contributed by encouraging learned publications and attaching promotion to the same; particularly in the selection of directors great weight was given to successful labor as an author. A regulation of the department of Aug. 21, 1824, called to the attention of the consistories the one-sidedness of philologic preparation, and demanded that examinations should be extended principally on logic and metaphysics, psychology and history of philosophy, history and theology; but that very one-sidedness had trained the best powers of teaching, and if the examination in philosophy had remained in the background, there was among the students of that time such great zeal for education in philosophy, that without special requirements at the examination, all studies were enlivened thereby, even in a more extensive and more liberal manner than is possible by the anxiety to pass an examination. The afore-mentioned circular, in calling upon the commission for examination, to pay strict regard to "thoroughness and quality of philosophy and the study thereof, to the end that the shallow and superficial philosophisms which in modern times compose wholly the science of philosophy, may give way to fundamental studies, and that philosophy may obtain again her honorable and useful position among the sciences, and that academic youth, instead of being bewildered and darkened by after-philosophy, may be conducted by thorough instruction in a genuine philosophical spirit, to a clear, correct and complete application of the powers of the mind," was particularly meant for the study of the philosophy of Hegel, and the early appointment of Hegel into the commission for examination coincided with it. The objections raised, by the commission of Berlin only, against the practicability of the order of the department in reference to philosophy, were replied to on Aug. 13th, 1865, that "the different branches of philosophy in which examination should be had, give to the examining person forthwith a distinct and concrete subject, by which to discover whether the candidate has mentally appropriated what he heard in the lectures on philosophy at the university." The observation of the commission, that no law did exist, and could not very well exist,

according to which one system of philosophy only should be studied by the young at the academy, was refused as trivial and not called for by the circular of the department.

The circular of Aug. 21st, 1824, directed further that each candidate for teachership, who had been examined, should pass another trial before a member of the consistory, in regard to his knowledge in theology. Of those who did not want to be qualified for instructing religion, they should particularly inquire whether they possess the knowledge of the Christian doctrines of faith and morality requisite for teachers at a gymnasium, while of those intending to become qualified for teaching religion, they should require sufficient knowledge in the exegesis of the Old and New Testaments, and in church history. In proposing for the office of professor or director, those who had a thorough education in theology should be principally favored.

In a corresponding manner it was ordered, under date of Sept. 2, 1826, that a Catholic clergyman, well schooled and of distinguished reputation, should be invited, with the approbation of the archiepiscopal see of Cologne, to examine Catholic candidates for teachership in their knowledge of religion, and to do this if possible at the place where the commission of education held their session.

Candidates for teachership, who desired to be engaged at the higher burgher schools only, should be admitted to the examination pro facultate docendi, though they had not passed the triennium academicum, or not frequented a university at all. But with regard to regular teachers of science at the higher burgher-schools, or schools of commerce, and technical or real-schools in larger cities, in which an education was obtained for the higher mechanics or for the commercial profession, principally in mathematics, the natural sciences, history and geography, German literature, technology and modern languages, it was ordained by instruction of March 29th, 1827, that their commission should depend on a previous well-passed examination in these branches.

The requirements for teachers of higher schools, changed and enlarged in the course of time, made necessary the preparation of new rules for examination, which are still extant, and which were composed by Joh. Schulze on the basis of opinions presented by the different commissions for examination. In these are distinguished the examination: 1, pro facultate docendi; 2, pro loco; 3, pro ascensione; 4, the colloquium pro rectorata. Subjects in examination are: 1, the German, Latin, Greek, French, and Hebrew languages; 2, mathematics, natural philosophy, history and geography, philosophy and pedagogy, theology. However, it should not be forbidden to any candidate to be examined in other languages and sciences, to which he had devoted himself, and which stood in connection with objects of instruction at secondary-schools. A main condition for admission was the complete academic triennium, and in 1841 a rule was added, that every one who desired to enter the service of the Prussian government must have studied at a Prussian university

during three semesters. Foreigners, in order to be admitted to the examinations, are required to present a special permit from the Department of Education; but from this, candidates from the Grand Duchy of SaxeCoburg-Gotha are excepted since 1864.

According as the "curriculum vita" delivered by the candidate is found to be more or less favorable, two or three subjects for a treatise in writing are given him, with directions to finish the same after a certain fixed time (usually six months,) and to report the sources from which information was drawn for the composition. As a rule, one of these compositions must be in the Latin language; to candidates who intend to devote themselves exclusively to teaching mathematics and natural science at one of the higher burgher or real-schools, it is permitted to use the French language in place of the Latin. By circular of May 19, 1833, it was also permitted to give to candidates upon their application, lessons more difficult or more easy than were first required in the examination. Exempt from compositions in writing should be: (1,) doctors and masters of philosophy promoted at one of the inland universities, after a public defense in Latin of their naugural dissertation, published in printed form; (2) candidates of theology, who can produce a certificate from the theological commission of examination of having favorably passed the first examen for theologians. From the oral examination, doctors of philosophy were not exempt; on the contrary they had to be examined in all the principal branches of instruction, and particularly in those which are not included in the examination for doctor of philosophy.

According to the value of the written compositions, the subject for a trial-lesson, and the class in which it is to take place, are selected, and "the director and those members of the commission to whom the branches selected principally belong, are required to be present." In practice, however, it has been found that the director can not assist at all times, and consequently he is not always present.

By the oral examination is to be ascertained what knowledge the candidate possesses in philology, mathematics, history, natural sciences, theology and philosophy, and if sufficient for the purposes of teaching at secondary-schools; and he shall be examined so far in them as is necessary to judge correctly the extent of his knowledge. That part of the examination which refers to ancient (classical) philology, must be made in Latin. If the trial-lesson and oral examination should give a result different from that which the written compositions gave a right to expect, the candidate may be required to prepare another, under special surveillance and without any means of assistance. More than three candidates shall not be examined at the same time, and then only such as desire to become qualified for the same grade of schools. "The importance of the examination makes necessary the permanent presence of the director of the commission, and another member beside the one who examines the candidate."

In giving the "facultas docendi," three degrees are distinguished:

(1,) the unconditional, when the candidate, besides a sufficient, even if not perfectly developed capacity for teaching, is so far master of the subjects as to be able, after due preparation, to teach, (a) Latin and Greek and the German language, (b) mathematics and natural sciences, (c) history and geography, or (d) as according to later instructions of the Department, theology, and the Hebrew language, in one of the upper classes of a gymnasium successfully, and is so far acquainted with all other subjects as to be able to appreciate their relative importance to other branches of instruction and to influence beneficially the total education of the students." In a declaration of Aug. 9th, 1831, the Department pointed out "that the purpose of this regulation was to prevent for the future the total ignorance of candidates for teachership in any of the three essential branches of instruction in secondary-schools, as had hitherto not seldom been shown." Since the issue of the regulations of 1834 for the maturity examination* in leaving the gymnasium, such total ignorance is prevented, and the general examination of candidates appears no more necessary; however, the fear of it often divides the powers of students, who rather strive after the eminent in one branch, which is the more important, than after an æqualis mediocritas.

As qualification for instructing philology in the two upper classes, besides a perfect knowledge of Greek and Latin grammar, an extensive study of the classics of these two languages, in particular of those usually read in upper classes, and a familiarity with the actual value of philology and the most important means for its study, as well as correctness and fluency in lecturing Latin, are required. In the branches of philosophy a complete knowledge of details and minute penetration can not be expected; yet the examination must lead to the conviction that the candidate has studied these sciences.

The examination in German extends to grammar, the peculiar character and laws of the language, the historic development of the same, and the history of its literature. "Those who do not possess knowledge of the German language and literature, and general scientific knowledge enough to teach the German successfully in each class, even in the highest, can not receive the "unconditional facultas docendi for philology." The Department declared in rescript of Nov. 12th, 1831, that those who contended for that degree should combine the knowledge of antiquity with the study of the history of modern science.

In history and geography, beside a general knowledge thereof, the "study of the principal authors for any period of ancient, middle or modern history" was required. Moreover the candidate should “possess enough of philology, not only to make use of the Greek and Roman classics for his lectures, but also by the latter to contribute to the interpretation of the former; and he should have that command of expression in Latin, that he can deliver his lectures on ancient history in that lang

*Note. The final examination on leaving the gymnasium, which, if successfully passed, declares the student matured for the university, and entitles him to admittance.