CREEDS AND CONFESSIONS.

back, therefore, to 175. But it must go still earlier, because of the lack of maker of heaven and earth.' etc., which were directed against the heresiarchs who began to come to Rome as early as 140. Hence, we must put the date at least as early as about 133. That the creed was brought to Rome from the Orient is probable, but not capable of proof. Consult: Harnack, in Herzeg, Apostolisches Symbolum; also his Geschichte der altchristlichen Litteratur (Leipzig. 1893).

The Nicene, or rather the Niceno-Constantinopolitan creed, is the next great expression of doctrinal truth that we meet in the history of the Church. It sprang out of the conflict, which had begun even in the second century, as to the dignity and character of Christ. From the beginning, Ebionitism had looked upon Christ as merely a Jewish teacher of distinction; Theodotus and Artemon openly taught such a doctrine in Rome toward the close of the second century. Others, on the contrary, taught a doctrine which identified Christ with God absolutely in such a manner as to destroy all distinction of persons in the Godhead. Monarchianism, as it was called, which held rigorously and formally to the unity of God, was the ruling principle of both doctrines, opposite as were the expressions it assumed in the two cases.

The controversy thus begun in the second, perpetuated itself in the third century, under various modifications. Paul of Samosata carried out the

Unitarian tendency, which reduced Christ to the level of a mere man; Sabellius carried out the same tendency in the opposite direction, which made Christ not merely divine, of the same substance with the Father, but looked upon Him as merely a manifestation of the Father, without any distinct personality. Sabellianism recognized a Trinity of manifestations, but not a Trinity of essences. God was one and all-comprehending, and the Son and the Spirit were merely names or expressions for the different modes in which He successively reveals Himself. Sabellius flourished about the middle of the third century, and Paul of Samosata somewhat later. Arius, who was a presbyter of Alexandria, grew up in the midst of these influences, and soon distinguished himself in the Alexandrian Church by his advocacy of the doctrine that Christ, although in a true sense divine, or the Son of God, was yet not the very God. He denied that He was of the substance of God,' or 'without beginning'; He was only the highest created being. 'promoted' to divinity, but not the same in substance with the Father, nor equal with Him in power and glory. Athanasius came forward as the opponent of Arius, and the contest between them raged keen and wide throughout the Church.

The Council of Nicea was summoned in 325 by Constantine, with the view of settling this controversy; and the Nicene Creed was the result. There were thus three parties in the council-the Athanasians, or extreme orthodox party; the Eusebians, or middle party; and the Arians, or heretical party. The heretics were few in number, and possessed but little influence; but the Eusebians were a strong party, and for some time resisted certain expressions of the orthodox or Athanasians, which seemed to them extreme and unwarranted; but at length the Homoöusians, as they were called, carried the day; and Christ was declared not merely to be of like substance

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CREEDS AND CONFESSIONS.

(homoiousios), but of the same substance (homoöusios) with the Father.

The creed was formed by extending the Apostles' Creed to include the new definitions. The essential parts are: "And [I believe] in one Lord Jesus Christ, the only-begotten Son of God; begotten of the Father before all worlds, Light of Light, very God of very God, begotten not made, consubstantial [of one substance, homoöusios] with the Father." The Council of Constantinople (381) simply reaflirmed this creed. Later the so-called Nicene-Constantinopolitan Creed arose by the incorporation of the Nicene Creed in the baptismal confession of the Church at Jerusalem, and was erroneously recognized by the Council of Chalcedon as the creed of Constantinople. It adds definitions as to the Holy Spirit, "Lord and Giver of Life, proceeding from the Father [Latin form adds "and the Son" (see FILIOQUE)], who with the Father and Son together is worshiped and glorified, who spake by the prophets." It also adds the word 'one' to the definitions of the Church and of baptism, putting the latter, "We confess one baptism for remission of sins."

The Christological controversies produced the council and creed of Chalcedon in 451. (See CHRISTOLOGY.) This creed pronounced in the most decided and elaborate way for the full and unchanged divinity and humanity of our Lord, these two natures being comprised in the unity of one person. It thus defined the elements of the doctrine of the person of Christ, and became one of the great doctrinal councils of Christian history, if not the greatest after Nice.

The next remarkable monument of doctrinal truth in the Church is what is called the Athanasian Creed, a product of the fifth century, much later than Athanasius himself, but representing, with great formal minuteness and fidelity, his doctrine of the Trinity, as apprehended and elaborated by the Western Church. See ATHANASIAN CREED.

It was

The Apostles', the Nicene, the Chalcedonian, and the Athanasian may be said to form the great Catholic creeds of the Church. After the time of the last-mentioned formula, there is no general symbol of faith that claims our attention till the period of the Reformation. Theology continued to be cultivated during the Middle Ages, and especially during the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, with great assiduity. Scholasticism is nothing else than the vast expression of the intellectual labor bestowed upon this subject during these ages, when scarcely any other subject can be said to have engaged men's minds. characteristic of scholasticism, however, to work mainly upon the doctrinal data already adopted and authorized by the Church, developing these data in endless sentences and commentaries. There was, withal, no real freedom of inquiry, nor life of speculation. But as soon as the eye of free criticism and argument was turned upon Scripture with the Reformation, new creeds and confessions began to spring up. On the one hand, Protestantism had to defend its position and its scriptural authority by appeal to its system of belief; and, on the other hand, the Church of Rome, after many delays, gave forth at the Council of Trent (1545-63) a more extended and detailed statement of its doctrine than was to be found in any previous creed. The decrees of Trent, with the additions made in

CREEKS.

Cherokee. The ruling tribe was the Muscogee, whose language was the court language, besides which there were the Alabama, Hichitee, Koasati, and others of the same Muskhogean stock, with the Uchee and Natchez (q.v), and a considerable incorporated band of Shawano. The Seminole of Florida were an offshoot from the Muscogee confederacy. They were agricultural, but warlike, living in villages of log houses, plastered on the outside with clay, and arranged in a rectangle about a central space reserved for public ceremonies, chief of which was the annual 'busk,' or green-corn dance. In the Colonial wars, and during the Revolution, they generally adhered to the English side. They made a treaty of peace with the United States in 1790, but in 1813, instigated by the English, again took up arms against the Americans, beginning hostilities by the terrible massacre of Fort Mims. They were completely crushed by General Jackson in a brief but bloody campaign, in three battles in which they lost respectively 200, 300, and 800 warriors killed. Utterly broken, the Creeks were compelled to sue for peace, which was granted only on submission to a peremptory 'demand' for the surrender of more than half their ancient territory, Other cessions quickly followed, until in 1832 they sold all their remaining territory and agreed to remove beyond the Mississippi to their present habitat in the Indian Territory. Like the other Southern tribes, they were divided in sentiment during the Civil War, and suffered severely in that struggle. Under the name of the 'Creek Nation' they conduct an autonomous government, similar in form to that of the Cherokees (q.v.). The nation numbers 16,000 citizens, of whom about two-thirds are of pure or mixed Creek blood.

CREEL'MAN, JAMES (1859-). An American editor and newspaper correspondent, born in Montreal, Canada. He was first associated with the New York Herald (1877), and eventually became editor of its London and Paris editions. During the war between China and Japan, he was correspondent for the New York World, and in the Turco-Greek War did similar work for the New York Journal, which paper he also represented at Santiago during the Spanish-American War, where his gallant conduct met with wide and well-deserved recognition. He was a voluntary aide on General Lawton's staff during the Philippine insurrection. His publications include: On the Great Highway: Wanderings and Adventures of a Special Correspondent (1901), and Eagle Blood (1902).

CREEP (from creep, AS. créopan, Icel. krjapa, OHG. chriochan, Ger. kriechen, to creep). A miner's term for the depression which takes place in underground workings from the removal of beds of coal or ore. Masses of the coal-seam, like huge pillars, are left by the miners for the support of the superincumbent strata; the pressure, however, of these beds is so great that, in course of time, the roof gradually sinks, or, as is more frequently the case, because of the roof consisting of hard rock, the softer shale pavement rises up, until the intervening spaces between the pillars, left by the removal of the coal, are filled up. A consequent depression takes place in the beds above, as also an alteration of the surface level. But this, being so gradual, is seldom noticed, except when it is made evident from the

CREIGHTON.

accumulation of surface-water, or in districts where railways pass over the coal-fields. The term is also used in geology to designate the movement of soil or rock outcroppings down a slope.

CREEPER.

A name very generally applied its food by running or creeping about upon the to any bird, especially if of small size, which seeks trunks of trees. It is more properly applied to the members of the family Certhiide and especially of the genus Certhia. They have a slender, arched, and pointed bill; a long, narrow, sharppointed tongue, jagged near its tip; the tail rather long, and the tips of the tail-feathers firm and pointed, extending beyond the webs. The feet are rather slender; the hinder toe about as long as the other toes. Of this conformation of feet stiff feathers of the tail being employed for supand tail great use is made in climbing trees, the port. They display great agility in clambering, often back down, about the branches, and probe every cranny for hiding insects or insect-eggs. They make their nests in crevices in trees, old woodpeckers' holes, etc. Although the family is than one true species, the common streaked-brown large, it is doubtful if the genus contains more creeper (Certhia familiaris), a bird found in all temperate parts of the Northern Hemisphere, wherever wood abounds. In the United States the word creeper is very generally used as a part of the name of several warblers, as the pinecreeper (Dendroica pinus) and the black-andwhite creeper (Mniotilta varia). In Jamaica the name is given to a small species (Certhiola Bahamensis), otherwise known as banana-bird, because it frequents and nests in the banana-trees. See HONEY-CREEPER; TREE-CREEPER.

(1843He

CREEPING PLANTS. Plants whose stems run close to the surface of the soil and root at intervals. See STEM; VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION. CREESE, or CREASE. See KRIS. CREFELD, krā'felt. See KREFELD. CREIGHTON, kra'ton, MANDELL 1901). An Anglican prelate and historian. was born at Carlisle, Northumberland, graduated from Merton College, Oxford, in 1866, with the highest honors, and continued there as tutor until 1873. In 1870 he became deacon, in 1873 priest, and in 1875 assumed the college living at Embleton in his native shire. He was appointed rural dean of Alnwick in 1879, honorary canon of Newcastle in 1882, and professor of ecclesiastical history at Cambridge in 1884. In 1891 he became Bishop of Peterborough and remained there until 1897, when he was transferred to the see of London and was made a Privy Councilor. He represented Emmanuel College, Cambridge, at the celebration of the two hundred and fiftieth anniversary of Harvard University (1886), and in 1896 attended the coronation of Czar Nicholas II. as delegate of the Church of England. Bishop of London, which office he retained until his death, Dr. Creighton, although known as a High Churchman, acted with signal skill and impartiality in the numerous delicate questions which confronted him. Besides his History of the Papacy (5 vols., 1882-94), his Age of Elizabeth (1876); Cardinal Wolsey (1888); Life and Letters, 2 vols. (London, 1903); Historical Essays and Reviews; and Historical Lectures and Addresses (London, 1903) deserve especial mention.

As