CLIFFORD.

wrangler in the mathematical tripos of 1867. In August, 1871, he was elected to the chair of mathematics and mechanics at University College, London, which post he retained until his untimely death at Madeira, March 3, 1879. Clifford first established his reputation as an origi nal thinker with the faculty of expressing scientific thought in plain and simple language by a lecture at the Royal Institution, On Some of the Conditions of Mental Development. He was a valued member of the London Mathematical Society, contributing to the Proceedings; for a time he acted as secretary, and afterwards vicepresident of the mathematical and physical section of the British Association; he also lectured to the Sunday Lecture Society on such subjects as Ether; Atoms; and The Sun's Place in the Universe, and took an active interest in popularizing science. The versatility of his mind in philosophical and scientific discussion was further shown by his varied contributions to periodical literature. Besides these articles, and many papers on mathematics, he issued the first part of a larger text-book, Elements of Dynamics (1878). See Clifford's Lectures and Essays, edited by Leslie Stephen and F. Pollock (London, 1879), which contains a biographical sketch by

the latter editor.

CLIFFORD'S INN. An inn of Chancery, attached to the Inner Temple, in London, built in 1345, and named after Robert de Clifford, who lived in Edward II.'s reign. Like the other Inns of Chancery it is now used for office and business purposes.

CLIFF-PLANTS. A group of drought-plants, xerophytes (q.v.), found chiefly on river, lake, or

sea cliffs. See ROCK-PLANTS.

CLIFF-SWALLOW, or EAVES-SWALLOW. A swallow (Petrochelidon lunifrons) familiar throughout North America as one of those that make their nests about barns and outhouses, (See BARN-SWALLOW.) It is distinguished from other semi-domestic swallows by its short, square tail, reddish rump, grayish breast and collar, and white forehead; and by the fact that it places its flask-shaped nests of mud always on the outside of the building, unlike the fork-tailed true barn-swallows, which go inside the building to nest. This swallow originally nested in colonies wherever a rocky cliff afforded a chance to fasten their nests in close companies upon its face. (See Plate of FAMILIAR SWALLOWS.) These nests were globular, with a spout-like neck, forming the entrance, and were formed of pellets of mud, and lined with grass and feathers. As soon as human settlements began near their resorts, these swallows abandoned the cliffs for the more secure, better-sheltered place under the eaves of such buildings as they were permitted to occupy; and as the spread of civilization has finally covered most of the range of the species, only a few places in the remote West remain where these birds may be seen nesting after their primitive habit In the eastern part of the country interesting modifications of habit have followed their long-continued association with man-among others, a disposition to make a much simpler style of nest, leaving off the domed roof and flask-like entrance, and forming little more than a cup in its place, since the overhanging eaves keep off the rain and conceal the sitting bird. This genus is almost cosmopolitan, has similar habits nearly everywhere, and in all countries attaches itself

CLIMACTERIC YEAR.

to and is welcomed by civilizaztion. Consult Ingersoll, Wild Life of Orchard and Field (New York, 1902).

CLIFTON. A beautiful and favorite water

ing-place in the southwest of Gloucestershire, England, forming the western suburb and part of the Parliamentary borough of Bristol (Map: England, D 5). It has a tepid spring of 73° F., which contains carbonic acid and salts of magnesia. The deep valley of the Avon is here spanned by a graceful suspension bridge. Population, in 1901, 44,400. See BRISTOL.

CLIFTON, or SUSPENSION BRIDGE. Former name of the town of Niagara Falls (q.v.), Ontario, Canada.

CLIFTON FORGE. A town in Alleghany County, Va., 231 miles west by north of Richmond, on the Chesapeake and Ohio Railroad (Map: Virginia, E 4). It has a handsome Y. M. C. A. building and a railway hospital. There are extensive railway shops and important iron interests. Population, 1906 (local est.), 4000.

CLIFTON SPRINGS. A village in Ontario County, N. Y., about 28 miles (direct) southeast of Rochester; on the Lehigh Valley and the New York Central and Hudson River railroads (Map: New York, C 3). It is famous for its sulphur springs and the well-equipped Clifton Springs Sanitarium, the latter surrounded by three parks. Settled about 1850, Clifton Springs was incorporated as a village in 1859. Population, 1900, 1617; 1905, 1586.

CLIM, klim, or CLYM OF THE CLOUGH, kluf (Clim of the valley, Icel. klofi, ravine, from klufa, to split, AS. cleofan, to cleave). An English archer, said to have lived one generation previous to Robin Hood. He is known through the old ballad Adam Bell, Clym of the Cloughe, and The story runs that Wyllyam of Cloudeslee. these men were outlawed for stealing venison, and passed through many adventures and fights with the sheriffs, justices, and mayor of "Merrie Carlile." They went to the King for pardon; but he would have hanged them but for the Queen. The ballad is far older than the oldest copy exA fragtant, printed by Copeland about 1550. ment of an older one exists, recovered by Payne Collier. In this ballad William of Cloudeslee shoots an apple from his son's head after the manner of William Tell, of the Continental legend.

CLIMACTERIC YEAR (Lat. climactericus, Gk. kλiμakтnpikós, klimaktērikos, climacteric, from κλuákтnp, klimakter, round of a ladder. dangerous point in life, from κλīμağ, klimax, ladder, staircase). The year in the life of a woman during which she undergoes what is commonly called the 'change of life,' and which generally falls between her forty-fifth and fiftieth years. The term 'climacteric years' was once applied also to certain years in man's life, which were long believed by the disciples of astrology to have been the critical points of his health and fortune. Crises of this kind were, namely, supposed to be reached in the twenty-first, the thirty-fifth, the forty-ninth, and the sixty-third years of man's life. The most important of all was the sixtythird year, which was called-by way of eminence -the climacteric year, or the "grand climacteric." This year was supposed to be fatal to most men, owing to the fact that sixty-three is the product of the two mystical numbers seven and nine.

CLIMATE (OF. climat, from Lat. clima, Gk. «λīμa, klima, region, slope, from kλíve, klinein, to incline). A word used in meteorology to indicate the summation or general result of all the solar and terrestrial influences that affect animal or vegetable life. It is possible, in fact, to disregard the relation to life, and consider only the meteorological phenomena as such, or the phenomena that affect any phase of our activity. Thus, one may ask, How does the climate favor navigation by sailing vessels, or the use of the wind as a motive power? In one region the climate may favor the development of a certain disease; in another, it may favor the develop ment of special varieties of plants or animals. The specific features that favor the growth of either plants or animals, enabling them to make a specific spot their home, are oftentimes so obscure as to elude our observation and record; therefore, climatology is, in many respects, still an unsatisfactory study; but it has made such progress in the past fifty years as to have become exceedingly important to many classes of industries, as well as to physicians, naturalists, and agriculturists. Some varieties of plants are so dependent upon the nature of the soil in which they grow that Dr. Milton Whitney, of the United States Department of Agriculture, has advocated defining climatology as that which concerns the soil around the roots of the plant; but this is too narrow a view of the subject.

According to the usage of classic Greek, climate concerned principally the temperature of a place as regulated by the altitude of the sun at midday. As this varies with latitude, the ancients divided the known globe into zones two degrees broad in latitude, each of which was supposed to have its climate. At the present time, by combining the accumulated work of thousands of observers, we divide the globe into irregular regions, each of which differs from its neighbor in some important climatic condition as to temperature, rainfall, pressure, moisture, or the inclination of the sun and the amount of cloudiness. In the extensive works of the most eminent writers on climatology, especially those of Dr. Julius Hann, of Vienna, a large number of meteorological items are enumerated as being essential to a complete study of the climate of any place. These items include not merely the mean temperature, rainfall, cloudiness, the barometric pressure and relative humidity, but also the variations of these quantities, viz. their highest and lowest values each day, or month, or year, and the liability to sudden rises or falls. For navigation and the use of windmills, we need to know the average velocity of the wind, and perhaps especially the number of hours during which the wind exceeds a specified limit. With reference to the growth or importation of tender plants, the agriculturist needs to know the mean dates of the last frost of spring and the first frost of the autumn, the difference between which is ordinarily called the growing season. Since the establishment of the fact that the germination of seed, the growth of the plant, and the ripening of the harvest requires a certain amount of heat or molecular energy, efforts have been made to determine the thermal constants for many plants, and for each phase in growth. This 'thermal constant' is usually expressed as the sum total of the average daily temperatures when such temperatures are

above 42° F. There is also a 'rainfall constant' peculiar to each species of plant, the nature of which has been investigated by Linsser, who has shown that plants are able, by gradual evolution, to change their own thermal and aqueous constants, and eventually adapt themselves to a change in climate. Linsser's laws serve as a guide to those who would transplant a species from one part of the world to another of different climate.

In the study of climate with reference to navigation, we have to consider the frequency of destructive storm-winds. Charts showing this factor have been published for all the oceans and seas by the hydrographic offices of England, France, Holland, Russia, and the United States. In addition to this, for the special benefit of sailing vessels, Galton has shown how to prepare charts showing, for each square degree, the progress that a vessel of a certain size and rig would make if her sails were set so that she should go in a certain direction. From the point of view of insurance, both life insurance and fire insurance, the destruction by wind, hail, and lightning has been studied; these data, being plotted on charts, show the climate of the country from that point of view. Perhaps the most general idea of the distribution of climate is given by charts which show the frequency per month or year with which storm-centres pass over a given locality, and the direction in which they pass. A map of such frequency for the eastern portion of the United States was first published in the Statistical Atlas of Gen. Francis A. Walker in 1874, and the most extensive publication of this kind was published in 1893 as Weather Bureau Bulletin A, showing the frequency of storm-paths for all parts of the Northern Hemisphere. The wind, rain, and temperature are so distributed around a storm-centre that, when its location is known, the distribution of all the others can be closely estimated. In general, in the Northern Hemisphere, the regions that lie to the south of the paths of the storm-centres have prevailing warm, moist, southerly winds followed by occa sional sudden changes to cool, dry, westerly winds. This change occurs with every passing storm-centre, but the prevailing weather is clear and pleasant. Stations lying on the north of the paths of the storm-centres have prevailing eastcrly winds, with cloud and rain followed by cool northwest winds: but the time occupied by the trying easterly winds is proportionately larger.

It is difficult to describe or exhibit the climatic peculiarities of any region without the use of charts. Elaborate publications of this kind, for United States weather, have issued from the Weather Bureau at Washington; the Climatie Charts for the Years 1870-99 show the normal precipitation for each quarter of the year, the normal percentage of sunshine, the normal barometric pressure, reduced to sea-level, the normal temperature of the air at the surface of the earth, the mean maximum and mean minimum temperatures, the highest and lowest recorded temperatures. In addition to these, charts of first and last frost and of prevailing winds have also been published. The ordinary popular textbooks on meteorology are very largely occupied with climatology, properly so called. Of these, that by Prof. Frank Waldo (New York, 1896) is probably the most complete for America; the treatises of Angot, Traité élémentaire de météo

1899). For the United States specifically, consult the various publications of the Weather Bureau, and Waldo, Elementary Meteorology (New York, 1896). Consult also Woeikof, Die Klimate der Erde (Jena, 1887); Hann, Lehrbuch der Meteorologie (Leipzig, 1906); and Solly, Climatology (Philadelphia, 1903).

CLIMATOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION, AMERICAN. A society for the study of climatology, balneology, and the diseases of the respiratory and circulatory organs. It was or ganized in New York City in 1884, and is composed of physicians residing in the United States and Canada. It consisted, in 1906, of 143 members.

CLIMATOLOGY, CLIMATOGRAPHY. See

CLIMATE.

CLIMBING FERN, or HARTFORD FERN (Lygodium palmatum). A species of fern found, rarely, from Massachusetts to Kentucky and southward, remarkable for climbing or twining

around weeds and shrubs. The leaves are broadly palmate, and the fertile frondlets form a panicle upon the upper portion of the stem. It is prized for interior decoration of houses. For illustration, see Plate of FERNS.

CLIMBING FISH. One of the small Oriental fishes of the family Anabantidæ, interesting because of the modification of the upper portion of their branchial apparatus into a series of leaflike structures, adapted for retaining small quantities of water. This water is sufficient to keep the gills moist for a considerable time, thus enabling the fish to subsist in mud or out of water. For a special account of this apparatus, consult Dobson, Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London, 1874, p. 312. The numerous species live in fresh water in southeastern Asia and its neighboring islands, and in South Africa. The

a

HEAD OF CLIMBING PERCH.

a, Gills; b, Leaf-like apparatus serving as air-breathing lungs.

best-known and typical species is the climbing perch (Anabas scandens), which is widely distributed in the Orient, and especially abundant in the Ganges valley. It is about six inches in length, somewhat resembles a perch, and has large scales and a spiny dorsal fin.. It has been reported to climb palm-trees, but this needs verification. It often, however, leaves pools which are in danger of drying and travels over land in search of water, usually during the night or early morning, while the dew is still on.

CLIMBING HEMPWEED. See MIKANIA. CLIMBING PLANTS. See LIANAS.

CLINCH. See KNOTTING AND SPLICING. A French general, born at Thiaucourt (Meurthe). CLINCHANT, klǎN'shäN', JUSTIN (1820-81). He studied at the military college of Saint Cyr, entered the infantry service in 1841, and fought in the Crimea, in the Italian campaign of 1859, and in Mexico. As commander of a brigade of the Third Army Corps, he participated in the battles before Metz. Having escaped from imprisonment after the capitulation, he was appointed to the command of the Twentieth Army Corps of the Army of the East, with the rank of a general of division. He succeeded Bourbaki (q.v.) as commander of the Army of the East, and, intercepted by the Germans under Von Manteuffel in an attempt at retreat, was compelled, with his 84,000 troops, to withdraw into Switzerland. He subsequently commanded the Fifth the forces of the Commune, and in 1879 was Army Corps of the Army of Versailles against appointed Military Governor of Paris.

CLINCHER. A 'prentice who apes the manabout-town in Farquhar's comedies, The Constant Lover and Sir Harry Wildair.

CLINCHER-BUILT, or CLINKER-BUILT.

See BOAT.

CLINCH RIVER. A tributary of the Tennessee River, rising in Tazewell County, Virginia, and flowing in a southwestern direction through Virginia and Tennessee (Map: Virginia, B 5), joining the Tennessee River at Kingston. Its length is estimated at over 200 miles.

CLINEDINST, BENJAMIN WEST (1860—). An American illustrator, born at Woodstock, Va. He studied at the Virginia Military Institute (Lexington), and became known as an artist for periodicals and books. In oils and water-colors he has executed several portraits and genre pictures. He was awarded the Evans Prize of the American Water-Color Society in 1900.

CLING'MAN, THOMAS LANIER (1812-97). An American politician and soldier, born at Huntsville, N. C. He graduated at the University of North Carolina in 1832, and was elected to the State Legislature. From 1843 to 1858, with the exception of one term, he was a Whig member of Congress, where he became known as a brilliant debater. In 1858 he was selected by the Governor of his State to fill a vacancy existing in the United States Senate, whence, in 1861, he withdrew to become a colonel in the Confederate Army. He was promoted to be brigadiergeneral, served throughout the war, and in 1868 was a delegate to the National Democratic Convention. The existence in North Carolina of diamonds, rubies, corundum, platinum, and mica was first made known by him. He published Follies of the Positive Philosophers (1878) and a volume of speeches (1878).

CLINGMAN'S DOME. One of the two highest peaks of the Great Smoky Mountains, situated in Tennessee, just across the border from North Carolina (Map: North Carolina, A 4). It is 6619 feet above the sea-level. It was named after Thomas L. Clingman.

CLINIC (Lat. clinicus, Gk. «λıvıкbs, klinikos,

pertaining to a bed, from Xiv, klinë, from «Xi

vev, klinein, to incline). An institution or a department of a medical college, which is devoted to the examination and free treatment of patients. Notwithstanding the derivation of the