CLEARCHUS.

nized as commander-in-chief when the retreat had begun. He was, however, treacherously seized by the Persian general, Tissaphernes, and put to death.

CLEAR FIELD. A borough and the county seat of Clearfield County, Pa., about 90 miles (direct) east-northeast of Pittsburg; on the west branch of the Susquehanna River, and on the Pennsylvania and other railroads (Map: Pennsylvania, C 2); It is situated in a region containing deposits of coal and fire-clay, and has several novelty works, lumber-mills, flouring mills, planing-mills, brick-yards, and a steel plant, and ships out foundry products, tanned leather, etc. Clearfield was settled in 1805, and in 1840 was incorporated as a borough. Population, 1900, 5081; 1906 (local est.), 11,000.

CLEARING-HOUSE. Clearing-house associations are unions of banks, for the purpose of securing a speedy settlement of the claims of banks against one another. The oldest of these is the London Clearing-House, which appears to have been established about 1775. The most important clearing-house in the United States is that of the city of New York, which was estab

lished in 1853. Before the establishment of clearing-houses, the process of settling the mutual claims of banks upon one another was cumbersome and tardy. Each bank was forced to send out runners, carrying to every other bank the checks and claims that it had upon them. As each bank settled periodically its bills with every other bank, there was a continual interchange of money between them. All this has been obviated by the establishment of clearinghouses, in which representatives of the several banks meet daily, for the purpose of adjusting the claims of the banks upon one another.

An insight into the workings of clearinghouses can best be obtained by a brief description of the methods pursued in the New York Clearing-House, which may be taken as typical of all the rest. The banks represented send daily to the clearing-house at least two clerksa delivery-clerk and a settling-clerk. At the clearing-house, each bank has a desk at which the settling-clerk or clerks are seated. They bring to the clearing-house in bundles the checks, drafts, and other obligations due them from other banks, each bank being represented by a separate package. They bring also a list of the

amounts due them from each of the banks in

question. Before clearing begins, transcriptions of these lists are handed to the inspector. The sum total represents the aggregate amount to be settled for the day. Promptly at 10 o'clock, the delivery-clerks begin passing from one desk to another, delivering to each the package of claims of all sorts that their banks have against other banks. These claims are accepted in bulk, without examination of the items. As soon as all of the packages have been delivered, they are carried back to the banks, where an examination of the items takes place; and if there are any that are not valid, the adjustment takes place between the bank which has received them and that which presented them, without intervention of the clearing-house or rectification of the accounts drawn up there. When all of the packages have been received by the settling-clerks at the clearing-house, the latter draw up a statement of the demands made upon them. As these never balance the claims made

by their banks, it is obvious that at the close of each day's business some of the banks will be entitled to receive money and others obliged to make payments, to settle the accounts. When each clerk has made up his account, he forwards a statement of the aggregates, with the amount of the balance to be paid or to be received. When all have forwarded their accounts to the manager, and the accounts are proved by the equality of the debit and credit aggregates and balances, the manager certifies the amounts which each bank owes to the associated banks, or is entitled to receive from them.

In the London Clearing-House, for the settlement of balances a different rule prevails. Debit balances are settled by checks on the Bank of England in favor of the associated banks, and credit balances by similar checks drawn by the associated banks in favor of the creditor banks. in New York the amounts due by debtor banks are paid in cash to the clearing-house manager, who in turn pays the creditor banks. For this purpose gold certificates issued by the United States Government are used, and also clearinghouse gold certificates, which represent gold coin deposited with the clearing-house, and which are valid only in the settlement of clearing-house balances.

By the aid of the clearing-house, each bank can settle all of its relations to the banks of the city by a single payment, instead of adjusting its relations with each bank separately. Furthermore, settlements are effected by the transfer of a much smaller quantity of cash than would be otherwise required. Thus, in the first year of the New York Clearing-House, average daily clearings of $19,104,594.94 were effected by average daily payments of $988,078.06-but 5.17 per cent. In some years the percentage of balances paid in money has fallen as low as 3 per cent., and during the entire history of the New York Clearing-House has never reached so much as 7 per cent. The aggregate New York clearings were $5,750,455,987 in 1854, and $91,879,318,369 in 1905-the year of maximum exchanges. The aggregate exchanges reflect not only the growth of the city in importance as a commercial centre, but also the business conditions throughout the country-rising in times of notable prosperity and sinking in eras of depression. Thus, we may contrast the clearings of $35,461,052,826 in 1873, $48,565,818,212 in 1881, and $37,660,686,572 in 1890, with clearings of $22,000,000,000 in 1874, $25,250,791,440 in 1885, and $24,230,145,368 in 1894.

The New York Clearing-House is by far the most important in the United States. The excellence of the system embodied in it and the facilities which it affords to banks have been so generally appreciated that the institution has been widely copied, even in some of the smaller cities. On September 30, 1905, there were in the United States no fewer than 103 clearing-house organizations, which had, in the year ending on that date, transacted clearings to the extent of $140,501,841,957. It must be said, however, that two-thirds of the aggregate belonged to New York City. Abroad, the London ClearingHouse transacted business in 1905 to the amount of $59,072,000,000. Clearing-houses exist on the Continent of Europe, though the use of checks in daily life is far less frequent there than in England and in the United States, and the clear

ings are not so important. On the other hand, the institution is widely known in Canada, Australia, and other English colonies.

In

In the United States, the clearing-house associations not only furnish the facilities for settlements among banks which have been described, but also enable the banks to act as units in matters of banking policy. They establish rules of banking practice in the interest of the banks, as a whole, which individual banks would not be strong enough to maintain. Thus, many associations fix the rates to be charged for the collection of out-of-town checks. Čertain associations prohibit the issue of certified checks by the members. Many details of practice are thus regulated by clearing-house rules. These associations, too, foster among the banks a feeling of solidarity of interest, and furnish an organ through which this can find expression. times of financial distress, it may be a matter of supreme importance to all the banks that none go to the wall; for such an occurrence may cause a run upon all the banks and a general catastrophe. The stronger banks, under such circumstances, come to the aid of their weaker brethren. Nowhere is the function of the clearing-house in sustaining the interests of the banks, and the general credit of the community, more apparent than in the issue of clearing-house loan certificates. The ordinary clearing-house gold certifi cate differs from a Government gold certificate only in the fact that the clearing-house, and not the Government, is the custodian of the gold. It is preferred over the Government certificate because it can be issued in denominations better

suited to the needs of the banks. With these certificates the loan certificates have nothing in common. They are issued only in times of panic, to meet temporary emergencies, and are called in and canceled as soon as their work is done. In times of panic there is an unusual demand for means of payment. Under the national banking system of reserves, which permits the country banks to deposit a portion of their legal reserves in the commercial centres, this strain is felt quite severely in the money centres. It is only to a limited extent that such emergencies can be met by restricting discounts. In preparation for a demand which can be foreseen, this usually takes place; but at the moment of the crisis, credits must be expanded and loans discounted freely, if the storm is to be weathered. Where free banking exists, this is usually done through increased note issues; but the banking system of the United States does not admit of such an increase. The clearing-house loan certificate relieves the situation by substituting certificates based, not on cash, but on securities for the cash ordinarily used in clearing-house operations thereby placing this cash at the disposal

of the banks for the use of their customers.

The clearing-house requires a deposit of securities with a committee, and issues certificates bearing a relatively high interest-in New York City, six per cent., up to a certain per cent. of the securities deposited, generally 75 per cent. It generally provides that any loss arising from the issue of the certificates shall be assessed pro rata, either upon the capital and surplus or upon the average clearings of the banks. Thus the entire credit of the associated banks is pledged for the redemption of the certificates. The interest charge makes it to the advantage of the

The

banks to redeem as soon as possible the certifi cates issued to them, and they rarely last more than a few months. This expedient was first tried by the New York Clearing-House in 1860, and has been repeated in 1862, 1863, 1873, 1884, 1890, and 1893. In the latter year the issue began June 21 and ceased September 6. issue, the largest in the history of the clearinghouse, was $41,490,000. The last certificate was redeemed November 1, a little more than four months after the first issue. While, since 1860, these issues in New York have amounted to over $168,000,000, there has been no loss upon them. The example set by New York was pretty generally followed by other clearing-houses in 1873, and such issues have since been authorized by other associations to meet a general financial stringency or a local emergency.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. Cannon, Clearing Houses (New York, 1900); White, Money and Banking (New York, 1902); Jevons, Money and Mechanism of Exchange (London, 1875); Report of the Comptroller of the Currency (1896).

CLEAR LAKE. A body of water in Lake County, Cal., about 90 miles north of San Francisco (Map: California, B 2). It is about 25 miles long by from two to six miles wide; there is a contraction in its southern part, which is known as 'Lower Lake.' It is situated in an elevated and picturesque region, which is a popular resort for field and water sportsmen. Lakeport is on the west shore, and Lower Lake at the southeastern end.

CLEARNESS. A quality in painting, in successfully achieved without which light and shade (see CHIAROSCURO) is a sacrifice of purity of color.

The

CLEARSTORY, or CLERESTORY. upper part of any building lighted by a row of windows; or, more strictly, the upper part of the central nave of a church, in which windows were cut above the roof of the side-aisles. The object of the clearstory is to give direct light to the nave. Clearstories appear in all early Christian basilicas, and in a different form in Byzantine churches-as, e.g. that around the base of the dome of Saint Sophia. They are lacking in a certain class of early Romanesque churches with tunnel vaults and early groin vaults, especially in the south of France, Burgundy, and Lombardy, because the builders, who were then experimenting with vaulting, were afraid of its thrust, and did not dare to raise the spring of the main vault sufficiently above the supporting side-vaults to allow of the insertion of a line of windows below the spring. Such were San Ambrogio at Milan (groin vaults), Saint Etienne at Nevers, and Saint Sernin at Toulouse (tunnel vaults). After the twelfth century clearstories were again the rule.

CLEARWING. Any of the small moths of the family Egeriidæ, with transparent wings, the caterpillars of which bore into the stems of trees or plants, and hibernate there. Many of the clearwings are so small, brilliantly colored, and unlike moths, that they are easily mistaken for wasps or flies. The most common is the currant-borer (Egeria tipuliformis), imported to America from Europe, and sometimes highly destructive to currant and gooseberry bushes. The peach-borer (Sanina exitiosa) is a pest in peach orchards.

maximum number possible in such a curve. (See CURVES.) Clebsch and Cremona studied the representation of cubic surfaces on a plane through a one-to-one correspondence-a notion that has led to the study of higher correspondences between surfaces by Cayley (q.v.) and Nöther. Clebsch solved, by aid of the addition theorem of elliptic functions (see FUNCTIONS), the generalized form of Malfatti's Problem. He also solved (1862) the so-called 'Pfaflian Problem' of differential equations, by making it depend upon a system of simultaneous linear partial differential equations whose statement is possible without integration. Clebsch took a leading part in showing the great significance of the theory of invariants for the theory of hyperelliptic and Abelian functions; and to him is due the transformation of the theory of binary to that of ternary forms. (See FORMS.) He died at Göttingen, November 7, 1872. Vol. vii. of the Mathematische Annalen contains an excellent article on Clebsch, in which the value of his works is estimated by Brill, Gordan, Klein, Mayer, Nöther, and other contemporaries. His Vorlesungen über Geometrie were edited by Lindemann (Leipzig, vol. i., 1875-76, vol. ii., 1891).

CLE BURNE. A town and the county-seat of Johnson County, Tex., 54 miles southwest of Dallas, on the Gulf, Colorado and Santa Fe, the Trinity and Brazos Valley, and other railroads (Map: Texas, F 3). It carries on a large trade in grain, live stock, cotton, wool, hides, and produce, and nas cotton-compresses, cottonseed oil mills, flour-mills, foundry and machine-shop, etc.; division offices and shops of the Gulf, Colorado and Santa Fe Railroad, and general offices and shops of the Trinity and Brazos Valley Railroad. Population, 1890, 3278; 1900, 7493. Since the 1900 census considerable territory has been annexed to Cleburne, the population, according to a local census taken in 1906, being 13,102.

CLEBURNE, PATRICK RONAYNE (1828-64). An American soldier, prominent as a Confederate officer during the Civil War. He was born in County Cork, Ireland; studied medicine for a time at Trinity College, Dublin; ran away from home, and served for several years in the British Army. In 1855 he emigrated to the United States, and settled in Helena, Ark., where he studied law, was admitted to the bar, and practiced with considerable success. On the outbreak of the Civil War, he enlisted in the Confederate Army as a private, but by March, 1862, rose to the rank of brigadier-general. He commanded a brigade at the battle of Shiloh; was wounded in the battle of Perryville, Ky., on October 8, 1862; was promoted to be major-general in December of that year; was distinguished for gallantry at Murfreesboro, and at Chickamauga led a brilliant charge, and earned the title, "The Stonewall of the West.' In the battle of Missionary Ridge he commanded the right wing of the Confederate army; subsequently took a conspicuous part, as division commander under Johnston, against Sherman, and as a corps commander under Hood, in the Atlanta campaign against Sherman, and later, in the Tennessee campaign against Thomas and Schofield; and at the battle of Franklin, on November 30, 1864, he was killed while leading a charge on the Federal works. He was an organizer of the "Order of the Southern Cross," and was one of the first men in the Confederacy to advo

cate the use of colored troops. Consult the biographical sketch, by General Gordon, in Southern Historical Society Papers, vol. xviii. (Richmond, 1889).

CLECK/HEATON. A town in the West Rid

ing of Yorkshire, England, two and one-half miles Southwest of Bradford (Map: England, F 3). It has manufactures of woolens, worsteds, and blankets. Population, in 1891, 11,800; in 1901, 12,500. CLEDON ISMAN'CY. See SUPERSTITION. CLEETHORPE WITH THRUNS/COE. A

progressive town and railway-junction in Lincolnshire, England, two and one-fourth miles east-southeast of Grimsby (Map: England, F 3). It owns a new market and recreationgrounds. There is an electric-lighting plant. Population, in 1891, 4300; in 1901, 12,600.

CLEF (Fr. key, Lat. clavis). A musical symbol placed at the beginning of the staff to fix the pitch of one tone, thus also determining that of all the rest. There are three kinds of clefs, the G, F, and C clefs.

Of these the two former

always occupy a fixed position, viz.: on the second and fourth lines respectively, and indicate that these notes are g' and f. The C clef may appear upon the first, third, and fourth lines, but the note represented is always c'. The F clef is the oldest. Almost as old is the C clef, both being used in the Eleventh Century. The position of both was chosen to emphasize the semisteps of the fundamental scale (e-f; b-c). During the Fifteenth Century the G clef appeared, originally to denote the transposition of the old church modes a fifth higher, a process which involved the raising of f to f. Thus this clef originally also marked the semistep fg. It does so still in the modern scale of G. To-day the tendency is to dispense entirely with the C clef, which is only used in orchestral scores in two positions: on the third line for violas, and on the fourth line for celli, bassoons, and trombones. The general use of the C clef in older vocal music (first line, soprano; third, alto; fourth, tenor) was due solely to the fact that ledger-lines were unknown, thus necessitating the shifting of the clef to bring the tones of the voices within the staff. Up to the Seventeenth Century the C clef was used on every line of the staff. In modern vocal music the tenor parts are always written in the G clef, it being understood that the notes thus written are to be sung an octave lower. See MUSICAL NOTATION (the Clefs). CLEFT PALATE. See PALATE.

mar

CLEISHBOTHAM, klēsh boтH-am, JEDEDIAH. The imaginary 'collector' in Scott's series of novels, Tales of My Landlord. He claims to be schoolmaster and parish clerk of Gandercleuch. CLEISTHENES, klis'thê-nez. See CLISTHENES. CLEISTOG'AMOUS FLOWERS (Gk. kλewrós, kleistos, that which may be closed, from Kλelev, kleiein, to close + yáμos, gamos, riage). Relatively inconspicuous and never-open flowers, which occur, along with the ordinary flowers, in many plants, representing all of the principal alliances of the flowering plants. Cleistogamous flowers are seldom in a conspicuous position. One of the best-known illustrations is in the stemless species of violets. In these, in addition to the well-known conspicuous flowers, cleistogamous flowers occur more or less concealed near the base of the cluster of leaves and