the former. The medical code of ethics in England was prepared in 1803 by Thomas Percival, and on it is founded the code established in the United States. Prior to 1847 the codes of medical ethics which existed in this country were instituted by State and local societies, and there were none in many of the States. At its annual convention in that year the American Medical Association adopted a code which was recognized as the national code throughout the United States for thirty-five years. The code of the American Medical Association excludes all physicians other than 'regular' from consultations; and the action of the New York County Medical Society, in 1882, in giving their members the right to consult with 'all legally qualified practitioners,' has been the cause of a serious difference between the national and the State organizations, delegates from the New New York York Society having been refused admittance to the annual meetings of the American Medical Association. Consult Flint, Medical Ethics and Etiquette (New York, 1883).

MEDICAL DEPARTMENT, UNITED STATES ARMY. This department, under the direction of the Secretary of War, is charged with the duty of investigating the sanitary condition of the army and making recommendations in reference thereto, with the duty of caring for the sick and wounded; making physical examinations of officers and enlisted men; the management and control of military hospitals; the recruitment, instruction, and control of the Hospital Corps and of the Army Nurse Corps (female); and furnishing all medical and hospital supplies, except for public animals. In 1903 the depart ment consisted of 1 brigadier-general, 8 colonels, 12 lieutenant-colonels, 60 majors, 43 captains, 197 first lieutenants, 300 hospital stewards (noncommissioned officers), 400 acting hospital stewards, and in the Hospital Corps, which is under the command and control of the Medical Department, there were 3300 enlisted men; making a total of 321 commissioned officers and 4000 enlisted men. The Army Medical School is at Washington, D. C., and is organized with a faculty of four or more professors selected from the senior officers of the Medical Department stationed in or near the city of Washington, and such associate professors as may be required. The senior officer acts as president, and the junior as secretary of the faculty. Student officers are selected by the Surgeon-General from those medical officers who have been appointed since the last preceding term of the school and such others as may be authorized to attend. The course of instruction is of five months' duration of five months' duration annually, and includes lectures and practical instruction in the duties of medical officers in war and peace; military surgery, the care of the wounded in time of war, and hospital administration; military hygiene; military medicine; microscopy, sanitary and clinical; pathology, histology, bacteriology, and urinology; hospital corps drill; and first aid to wounded. Civilian physicians and dentists are employed whenever necessary, under contracts entered into by or with the authority of the Surgeon-General of the army. (See CONTRACT SURGEON.) See SURGEON, MILITARY; HOSPITAL CORPS; HOSPITAL, MILITARY.

MEDICAL DEPARTMENT, UNITED STATES NAVY. The medical corps of the United States

Navy, in 1902, consisted of a Surgeon-General (ranking as rear-admiral), a number of medical directors (ranking as captains), medical inspectors (ranking as commanders), 55 surgeons (ranking from lieutenant to lieutenant-commander), and 110 past assistant and assistant surgeons (ranking from lieutenant, junior grade, to lieutenant, senior grade). By an enactment of Congress the relative grades in the navy and army have been made to correspond as nearly as possible. Candidates for surgeonships in the navy must be between twenty-one and thirty years of age, and must apply to the Secretary of the Navy for permission to take the required entrance examination.

MEDICAL EDUCATION. The earliest institutions for the teaching of medicine were situated in temples and groves dedicated to the worship of the deities who were supposed to preside over the health of their worshipers. Thus in Egypt the god Osiris and his wife Isis were the tutelary deities of the medical arts, and in Greece the god of health was Esculapius. The temples were situated in the neighborhood usually of streams and springs which were supposed to possess healing properties. One of the most famous of these ancient temples was that situated on the island of Cos; its most celebrated disciple was Hippocrates, who flourished early in the fourth century B.C., and whose teachings ruled medical science even to the close of the eighteenth century. Throughout Italy the same methods prevailed, the Romans deriving most of their

medical lore from Greek teachers. Thus Galen was a native of Pergamum, where there was a famous medical school in which he was educated. His great work as a teacher, however, was done in Rome. Greek teachers were also responsible

for the rise of the Arabian school of medicine. In the sixth century A.D. the Nestorians, being driven out of Syria because of their heretical opinions, settled largely among the Arabs, and transmitted to them their medical knowledge. By this time the teacher of medicine was practically divorced from his religious functions, although even down to the medieval period much of the medical learning of the world appertained to the priesthood.

Until the time of the Renaissance the teaching of medicine in the medieval medical schools consisted almost solely in dissertations and lectures upon the writings of Hippocrates and Galen. The dissection of the human body was Galen. only intermittently practiced. In 1315 Mondino dissected in Bologna the cadavers of two women. Master Albert, a lecturer in the same institution, dissected, in 1319, a body stolen from the cemeBertucci and Pietro de tery by the students. Angela, a little later, made systematic dissections. But on the whole, anatomical science had made little advance.

Clinical teaching was on no better basis. The only way in which the student received bedside instruction was through apprenticing himself to some practitioner and accompanying him on his rounds, or by acting as his servant and assistant. Although the great universities conferred degrees in course, there were, nevertheless, enormous numbers of quacks and charlatans who flourished in the absence of any efficient laws regulating the right of persons to practice the healing art.

In the Middle Ages the most famous of all the medical schools was that of Salerno, near Naples, which was organized in connection with a monastery of Benedictine monks. Its gradIts graduates were to be found teaching in all quarters of the globe, and its influence was widespread, not only at the period in which it flourished, but for many years subsequent. Another celebrated medical school was that of Montpellier, in France. The University of Paris was founded in 1205 and graduated enormous classes. Its graduates were held in high esteem. They were not allowed to practice surgery, and held practitioners of that art in the greatest contempt. France, however, was the pioneer in recognizing the necessity for a higher education of surgeons, and for their elevation to a rank corresponding to that of physicians. In surgical teaching the French were always greatly in advance of other nations. It was in the University of Paris, likewise, that midwifery was first taught to classes of male students.

Among the most famous centres for medical teaching in the sixteenth century were the schools of Bologna, Padua, and Pisa in Italy. At the present time Italian physicians are doing an enormous amount of scientific research work. The facilities offered to students in their medical colleges, however, are not to be compared with those afforded by the other Continental medical schools. In Germany there were numbers of universities with flourishing medical departments at a very early period, among which may be mentioned Erfurt, Wittenberg, and Vienna. With the nineteenth century a new era dawned in German medicine. To it more than to any other single nation is due the credit of the wonderful achievements of the present day medicine. Virchow, Koch, and the other distinguished occupants of professorial chairs have had in their classes and laboratories eager students from all over the world. A more general education and a larger acquaintance with the various branches of the natural sciences are required of the German medical student than is customary elsewhere; a term of five years is requisite to obtain the degree of M.D.

In England the teaching of medicine was established upon a scientific basis chiefly by the efforts of Thomas Linacre, who founded chairs for the teaching of medicine in the universities of Oxford and Cambridge. As physician to Henry VIII. he possessed an enormous influence at Court, and this he wielded to great advantage, inducing the King to take the power of licensing persons to practice medicine out of the hands of the bishops, and rendering it necessary for the candidates to pass an examination and receive a degree from one or the other of the two universities. In England, as in France, it was many years before the education of the surgeon was considered as of equal importance with that of the physician. Until 1745 the surgeons were associated with the barbers in the corporation of the barber surgeons. In that year they separated, although it was not until more than fifty years later that the Royal College of Surgeons was incorporated. The medical profession in England consists of three classes: first, physicians, who have received their degree from one of the universities; second, surgeons, who have graduated from one or another of the medical schools which exist in

connection with the hospitals; and third, apothecaries, who dispense their own drugs and are generally considered as family physicians. Dispensers like American apothecaries are in England called chemists. The large hospitals in London have, in many instances, medical schools connected with them. Of the more prominent may be mentioned Saint Thomas, Saint Bartholomew, Saint George, and Guy's. The course of instruction at these hospitals is three years; the teachers are the physicians and surgeons who serve the hospitals. After passing the examinations at his medical school, in order to obtain authority to practice the graduate is obliged to pass an examination before a board composed of representatives of some of the leading medical societies, such as the Royal College of Physicians, the Royal College of Surgeons, or the Society of Apothecaries, or of some of the faculty of one of the universities.

The medical schools of Scotland are of great antiquity. That of Saint Andrews was founded in 1411, and the University of Edinburgh dates back to the year 1582, although it was many years subsequent to this before medical teaching there was placed on a scientific basis. The latter university exerted an incalculable influence on medical teaching in the United States, owing to the large number of American students who attended its courses.

From a very early period in the history of North America public lectures on medical topics were given in various parts of the country. To Dr. Cadwallader Colden is ascribed the credit of the first attempt to establish a systematic course on medicine in the Colonies. He tried to have the Assembly in the Province of Pennsylvania pass an act imposing a tax upon every unmarried man for the purpose of supporting a 'public physical lecture in Philadelphia.' His efforts were fruitless. In 1750 Dr. Thomas Cadwallader lectured on anatomy in Philadelphia, and in 1752 Dr. William Hunter, a cousin of the great John Hunter, lectured on anatomy at Newport, R. I. Dr. Charles F. Wiessenthal, of Baltimore, delivered lectures on surgery in that city prior to the Revolution.

The first medical school in the United States was founded by Drs. John Morgan and William Shippen, Jr., in 1765, when they established a medical department of the College of Philadelphia, which institution subsequently became the University of Pennsylvania. This was shortly followed by the organization, in 1767, of the medical department of King's College, New York, the lineal ancestor of Columbia University. Harvard University established its medical department in 1782, and in 1798 a medical department was established by Dr. Nathan Smith at Dartmouth College. Previous to the foundation of medical schools, the education of physicians in this country had been entirely by means of the apprenticeship system, except when a young man possessed sufficient means to go abroad and study in the medical schools of Edinburgh, London, or the Continent. It has been estimated that at the outset of the War for Independence there were upward of 3500 practitioners in the Colonies, of whom not more than 400 had received medical degrees. Most of the early teachers in American medical schools had been educated at the University of Edinburgh. This led to a close perpetuation of the traditions of the medical

school of Edinburgh on this side of the Atlantic. In the early part of the nineteenth century it became customary for American physicians desirous of studying abroad to take their post-graduate work in France. In this way the teaching of Laennec, Trousseau, and above all of the great Louis, became familiar to the American profession, and served to give an immense impetus to scientific medical work in the United States. The most prominent medical colleges of the United States now require candidates for admission to possess a collegiate degree, or to pass examinations practically equivalent to those customary at the termination of the sophomore year of the collegiate course.

According to the report of the United States Commissioner of Education for 1898-99, there were at that time in the United States a total of 157 medical colleges; of these, 122 were classed as regular, 21 as homeopathic, 6 as eclectic, 2 as physio-medical, and 6 as post-graduate. There were 23,778 students in these institutions, and 4389 instructors. In almost every State of the Union there are now examining boards which hold biennial examinations, which it is necessary for a physician to pass before he can establish himself in practice in the State. In 1875 there were no medical schools in the United States which required even so much as a three years' course. In 1899 a four years' course was compulsory in 141 medical schools.

+

MEDICAL EDUCATION OF WOMEN. The proposition to admit women into the medical profession met with bitter opposition, which has gradually given way. Although the Boston Homœopathic School for Women was opened as early as 1848, the Association for the Advancement of the Medical Education of Women, organized some time afterwards, first brought the subject clearly to public attention. The Woman's Medical College at Philadelphia was opened in 1850, and graduates about 20 physicians every year. The Woman's Medical College of the New York Infirmary was opened in 1868 by Dr. Elizabeth Blackwell (q.v.) and her sister Emily, the Infirmary for Women and Children having been in successful operation since its establishment by Dr. Blackwell in 1853. The college was closed The college was closed in June, 1898, having fulfilled its mission. The New York Free Medical College for Women was founded in 1870. There are at present, besides these, colleges at Baltimore, San Francisco, and Chicago, and a homeopathic institution in New York. At the University of Michigan female students are admitted to the regular courses in medicine, which are for three years, attending certain lectures separately. The College of Physicians and Surgeons at Boston and Omaha Medical College are open to both sexes, and the Meharry medical department of the University of Central Tennessee was founded for colored male and female students. In the large cities the dispensaries are now open to women, and candidates for degrees in the Woman's Medical College of New York were received as residents of the New York Infirmary to receive special instruction in obstetrics and pharmacy. A bequest of $10,000 was left the medical department of Harvard University, with the condition that worden should be admitted to the full course of instruction; and although the bequest with this proviso was not accepted by the authorities, there was a noticeably strong vote in its favor.

In 1890 the trustees of Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, accepted from ladies of that city and elsewhere $100,000 for the endowment fund of the university medical school, with the understanding that it should admit women on the same terms as men. Medical schools for women have been founded by American women in Turkey, and fifteen graduates of the Woman's Medical College of Philadelphia in 1884 were especially prepared for missionary work in foreign lands. One of the first female practitioners in England was Dr. Elizabeth Blackwell, who settled in London in 1868 and became connected with the Women's Medical College there. As late as 1867 the Apothecaries' Society passed resolutions excluding women from examinations for degrees. The admission of women to the University of Edinburgh led to open riots among the students. The 'enabling bill,' giving permission to medical schools and societies to grant qualifications for the registration of physicians without regard to sex, was passed by Parliament in 1876; King's and Queen's College of Physicians, Dublin, and the London University threw open their doors to women soon afterwards; and a preparatory medical school in London annually recruits the number of female matriculates in these institutions. There are dispensaries at London, Leeds, and Bristol superintended by female physicians; and Queen Victoria during her reign interested herself in behalf of medical missions carried on by Englishwomen in the East. The faculty of medicine at Paris has given a number of diplomas to women, as have the universities of Bern, Zurich, and Geneva. Zurich, and Geneva. The first woman medical graduate in Germany was Mrs. Dorothea Christiana Erxleben, who received the medical degree from the University of Halle in 1754, upon recommendation by Frederick the Great in a royal decree. But medical colleges in Germany were closed to women till 1900, when by a decision of the German Federal Council female medical students were entitled to be admitted to the State examinations in medicine. Heidelberg University opened its doors to women in 1900. There are medical courses for women at the Carolinian institutions at Stockholm and at Upsala. The Spanish_universities of Madrid, Valladolid, and Barcelona extend the same privileges. The War Department of the Russian Government founded a medical school for women at Saint Petersburg; a similar institution is now open at Moscow. All the medical societies in the United States and many in foreign countries admit female physicians to their congresses and discussions.

MEDICAL ELECTRICITY. See ELECTRICITY, MEDICAL USES OF.

MEDICAL JURISPRUDENCE, or FORENSIC MEDICINE. The application of medical science to the elucidation of legal questions which have a medical aspect. The questions included in modern medical jurisprudence are divided by Godkin into five general classes: (1) Those arising out of sex relations, as impotence and sterility, pregnancy, legitimacy, and rape; (2) injuries inflicted on the living organism, as infanticide, wounds, poisons, injuries, and death from violence; (3) questions arising out of disqualifying diseases, as the different forms of mental alienation; (4) those arising out of deceptive practices, as feigned diseases;

(5) questions of a miscellaneous nature, as age, identity, presumption of seniority, and life as

surance.

The

In criminal trials in the United States each side hires its own experts, and, owing to the use of hypothetical questions and the advocate's eliciting only part of the truth, the spectacle is often presented of equally competent medical experts flatly contradicting each other. effect which this has had in casting doubt upon the value of expert opinion, and the dissatisfaction to which it has given rise in the minds of judges, juries, and experts themselves, have led to numerous plans for remedying this defect in the present system of calling expert witnesses by establishing a class of official experts; but most of these plans conflict with one or all of the fundamental principles of the common law relating to the conduct of criminal trials: that the court shall be the sole judge of the law, that the jury shall pass upon facts, and that the defendant shall have the right to present any proper evidence on his own behalf.

In France experts are generally selected from a list of official specialists, termed experts assermentés, and if the parties cannot agree upon the experts, the court appoints them. The court may order an investigation and report by experts whenever necessary, and the order contains a statement as to the exact object of the investigation, and appoints a referee or juge commissaire. Barristers or avocats do not appear before the experts; but the parties are represented by solicitors or avoués, or sometimes by persons specially skilled in the matter under investigation. The report must be signed by all the experts (who are three in number), the reasons for any dissenting opinion being embodied in the report. The judges, however, are not bound by the report if it is contrary to their convictions.

In Germany, after the issues are determined upon which expert testimony is sought, the parties may agree upon the experts, and the court may appoint them. The court may limit the number of experts, or may submit to the parties the names of a number of experts, permit each side to challenge a certain number, and appoint those remaining. There is a class of officially appointed experts on certain subjects, and these have the preference in trials which concern those subjects, unless there is some special reason to the contrary.

The plan suggested by Sir James Stephen in his History of the Criminal Law of England, and used for some years in Leeds, has given much satisfaction. Under this plan, which requires a high standard of professional honor and knowledge, medical men refuse to testify unless before doing so they can meet in confer ence with the experts of the opposing side, and have an exchange of views. As a result, it is stated that at Leeds medical witnesses are rarely cross-examined, and often they are called on one side only.

See EVIDENCE; BLOODSTAINS; HOMICIDE; INFANTICIDE; INSANITY. Consult: Hamilton and Godkin, A System of Legal Medicine (New York, 1900); and Reese, Textbook of Medical Jurisprudence and Toxicology (Philadelphia, 1902).

MEDICAL SCHOOL. See MEDICAL EDUCA

TION.

MEDICAL SCHOOL, NETLEY. An establish ment at Netley, near Southampton, England, for

the technical education of medical officers for the British and Indian military service. Candidates are examined competitively in the ordinary subjects of professional knowledge; and, passing satisfactorily through that ordeal, are then required to attend, for six months, at the Military Medical School, where they go through practical courses of military hygiene, military and clinical-military surgery and medicine, and pathology with morbid anatomy. There is a training school for army nurses in connection with the hospital at Netley, where women enlist for life or during competency for work in army hospitals, in the field, or in foreign lands in care of the sick soldiery.

MEDICAL STATISTICS OF THE UNITED STATES. In the United States of America, including the Philippines, Porto Rico, and Hawaii, there were, in 1901, 115,222 physicians to a The last complete population of 84,332,610. data we have concerning the number of and attendance upon medical schools are for 1899. In this year there were, excluding graduate schools, 156 medical schools in the United States, with 24,119 students. The growth in the number of medical students in twenty-one years has been ular (21,619 students), 21 142 per cent. Of the 156 schools, 125 are 'regare homœopathic and 3 physio-medical (85 students). In addition (1,833 students), 7 eclectic (582 students), to these undergraduate schools there are 8 graduate medical schools, which had (in 1898) 624 instructors and 1813 students, of whom 59 were In 1899 these schools had 1916 stu

women.

dents, of whom 73 were women.

The ratio of physicians to population is less than 1 to 600 in the United States, while in the British isles to 1 to about 8500 in Russia. foreign countries it varies from 1 to about 1100 We are said to have in proportion to our population four times as many physicians as France, five times as many as Germany, six times as many as Italy.

MEDICI, mã’dê-ché, THE. The most celebrated family of the Florentine Republic. The Medici owed their earliest distinction to the success with which they had pursued various branches of commerce, and the liberal spirit in which they devoted their wealth to purposes of general utility. From the thirteenth century the Medici took part in all the leading events of the Republic. From the time when Salvestro de' Medici attained the rank of gonfaloniere in 1378 the family rose rapidly to preeminence, the foundation of its greatness being especially due to Giovanni, who died in 1429, leaving to his sons, Cosimo and Lorenzo, a heritage of wealth and honors hitherto unparalleled in the Republic. With Cosmo (1389-1464), on whom was gratefully bestowed the title of 'Father of his Country,' began the glorious epoch of the Medici; while from Lorenzo was descended the collateral branch of the family, which in the sixteenth century obtained absolute sway over Tuscany. Cosmo's life, except during a short period, when the Albizzi and other families reëstablished a successful opposition against the policy and credit of the Medici, was one uninterrupted course of prosperity. At once a munificent patron and a successful cultivator of art and literature, he did more than any sovereign in Europe to revive the study of the ancient classics, and to foster a taste for

mental culture. He assembled about him learned men of every nation, and gave liberal support to numerous Greek scholars; and by his foundation of an academy for the study of the philosophy of Plato, and of a library of Greek, Latin, and Oriental manuscripts, he inaugurated a new era in modern learning and art. But, though he retained the forms of the Republic, and nominally confided the executive authority to a gonfaloniere and eight priori or senators, he totally extinguished the freedom of Florence.

His grandson, LORENZO THE MAGNIFICENT (1449-92), became the virtual head of the Florentine State in 1469. In 1478 the conspiracy of In 1478 the conspiracy of the Pazzi nearly succeeded in overthrowing the Medici. Lorenzo's brother Giuliano was slain, and he himself barely escaped. The result of the conspiracy was to give Lorenzo a firmer hold upon the State. He pursued with signal success the policy of his family, which was to win the favor of the lower classes, and thereby make absolute their own power. He encouraged literature and the arts, employed learned men to collect choice books and antiquities for him from every part of the known world, established printing presses in his dominions, founded academies for the study of classical learning, and filled his gardens with collections of the remains of ancient art. When, however, his munificence and conciliatory manners had gained for him the affection of the higher and the devotion of the lower classes, he lost no time in breaking down the forms of constitutional independence that he and his predecessors had hitherto suffered to exist. Some few Florentines, alarmed at the progress of the voluptuous refinement, which was smothering every spark of personal independence, tried to stem the current of corruption by an ascetic severity of morals, which gained for them the name of piagnoni, or weepers. Foremost among them was the Dominican friar Girolamo Savonarola (q.v.), whose eloquent appeals to the people in favor of a popular and democratic form of government and a life of asceticism threatened for a time the overthrow of the Medici. Lorenzo achieved some reputation in belles-lettres. We have from him poems of many kinds, lyric, moral, dramatic, and descriptive. His Canzoni and Sonetti are love poems, to which he added a prose commentary. A true feeling for nature appears in the Caccia col falcone, and a rather pleasing picture of rural life is to be found in his Nencia da Barberino. A dramatic composition of a kind held in favor at the time is the Rappresentazione di Santi Giovanni e Paolo (performed in 1489). Like so many writers of the period, he cultivated the form of the ballata or dance-song. He wrote also a number of Canti carnascialeschi or carnival songs. The religious spirit prevails in his Laudi spirituali. His love poetry is the best of all that he produced, and the most distinctive characteristic in it is the note of melancholy.

PIETRO (born in 1471), who succeeded his father Lorenzo in 1492, possessed neither capacity nor prudence; and in the troubles which the ambition of her princes and the undue use of the temporal power of the popes brought upon Italy, by plunging her into civil and foreign war, he showed himself treacherous and vacillating, alike to friends and foes. When Charles VIII. of France, in 1494, marched into Italy in order to achieve the conquest of Naples, Pietro, in

VOL. XII.-5.

hopes of conciliating the powerful invader, hastened to meet the troops on their entrance into the dominions of Florence, and surrendered to Charles the fortresses of Leghorn and Pisa, which constituted the keys of the Republic. The magistrates and people, incensed at his perfidy, drove him from Florence, and formally deposed the family of Medici from all participation in power. Pietro lost his life in the battle of the Garigliano in 1503 while fighting in the French ranks. In 1512 the Medici were reinstated in Florence, and the elevation of Giovanni de' Medici to the Papal chair, under the title of Leo X. (1513-21), completed the restoration of the family to their former splendor. The accession of Giulio de' Medici to the pontificate as Clement VII. (1523-34), the marriage of Catharine, the granddaughter of Pietro, to Henry II. of France in 1533, and the military power of the cadet branch (descended from a younger brother of the 'Father of his Country') widened the rôle which the Medici were enabled to play.

Expelled from Florence in 1527, they were reinstated, and this time permanently, in 1530, by the combined forces of the Emperor Charles V. and Pope Clement VII. The Florentines were forced to accept as their ruler a worthless prince, Alessandro de' Medici, a natural son of Lorenzo II. (the father of Catharine), who in 1532 was invested with the ducal dignity. On his death by assassination without direct heirs, in 1537, Cosimo I., the descendant of a collateral branch, was raised to the ducal chair. Cosimo, known as the Great, possessed the astuteness of character, the love of elegance, and taste for literature that had distinguished his great ancestors; but none of their frank and generous spirit. He founded the academies of painting and of fine arts, made collections of paintings and statuary, published magnificent editions of his own works and those of others, and encouraged trade, for the protection of which he instituted the ecclesiastical Order of Saint Stephen. He was implacable in his enmity, and did not scruple to extirpate utterly the race of the Strozzi (q.v.), the hereditary foes of his house. His acquisition of Siena gained for him in 1569 the title of Grand Duke of Tuscany from Pius V. He died in 1574, leaving enormous wealth and regal power to his descendants, who, throughout the next half century, maintained the literary and artistic fame of their family. In the seventeenth century the race rapidly degenerated, and after several of its representatives had suffered themselves to be made the tools of Spanish and Austrian ambition, the dynasty of the Medici became extinct with Giovanni Gastone, who died in 1737. In accordance with the stipulation of the Peace of Vienna, the Grand Duchy of Tuscany passed to the House of Lorraine. The name of the Medici family was kept alive by a house which pretended to have emanated from it in the thirteenth century, and which acquired the Principality of Ottajano toward the end of the sixteenth century. To this house belonged Luigi de' Medici (1760-1830), Duke of Sarto, known as the Chevalier de' Medici. He was a minister of Ferdinand I. and Francis I. of the Two Sicilies, and died while visiting Madrid in 1830. Consult: Fabroni, Vita Magni Cosmi Medicei (Pisa, 1788-89); Armengaud, "Cosme des Medicis et sa correspondance inédite," in the Comptes-rendus de l'académie des sciences morales et philosophiques (Paris, 1876); Galluzi,