total area irrigated is 486,600 acres. een whose southern slopes and the In Lombardy about one-fifth of the diterranean is a narrow border of total area of territory is irrigated. Be-ping plain lands, only somewhat less tween the rivers Ticino and Adda nearly ide, and less continuous and connected nine-tenths of the surface, between the han the seacoast plain of the eastern face Adda and the Oglio two-tenths and be-f the country. tween the Oglio and the Adige one-seventh These plateaus receive as a general of the plain are irrigated. It is estimated thing less than 10 inches of rainfall per that the aggregate length of the canals year, of which total less than 10 per cent and their principal branches in Lombardy falls during the summer months.. Tue exceeds 4500 miles. To sum up it may be stated that Italy ceive from 10 to 20 inches per year, of How plains of the eastern coast region reemploys for irrigation more than 24,000 which about 5 per cent falls in the sumcubic feet of water per second, supplying mer. The south coast and the valley of 1,600,000 acres of land. It is estimated the Genil receive from 20 to 30 inches of that there has been expended for the irrigation of 1,000,000 acres in Lombardy not fess than $200,000,000. This expenditure has been spread over 700 years, and has made Lombardy a garden. SPAIN. The Source Whence California Derived rainfall, but only about 5 per cent falls in the summer; while the valley of the Ebro receives about 15 to 20 inches, with only 10 er cent presented in summer. In fact, ave less elevated parts of Central Spain present a climate quite similar to that of Interior California, while Eastern Spain has the characteristics of the Los Angeles valley, the productions also being almost The practice of irrigation in Spain pos- In Central Spain wheat is grown by irriidentical in the couplets above named. Besses peculiar interest for Californiana, gation; alfalfa is a standard grazing crop, since it was from that country that we de- also irrigated; while grapes and temperrive many of our customs in that connec- ate zone fruits are irrigated or not, accordtion. It is true irrigation was practiced ing to the peculiarities of special localities. in Mexico and South America long before On the low plains, and in the low valleys the Spanish occupation, while in Arizona opening out upon the plains on the east coast of Spain, citrus fruits abound, olives are the traces of irrigation systems con- flourish, the grape is cultivated princistructed by a people that were extinct cen- pally for raisins, and the presence of the turies before the Spanish conquerors date palm and other semi-tropical fruits landed on the American coast. The mark the similarity to our plains and valfoundation of the irrigation system of Cal- leys of Los Angeles and San Bernardino. The use of water for irrigating in Spain ifornia, in fact of the entire country, was and the possession of water rights follow laid, however, by the Spaniards who the same lines that are peculiar to Califounded the missions on the Pacific Coast, fornia. In some cases the water right and to them should be given the honor of belongs to the land and cannot be sepainaugurating the system to which, more rated from it. The sale of the land carthan anything else, California owes the ries with it the water as an appurtenant. Similarly the grants of land made by the proud position which she occupies to-day. Spanish and Mexican Governments in The irrigation systems of Spain possess California carried the water with the land. Btill further interest for us, because the The two were inalienable. climate of that country corresponds more In other instances Spanish irrigators nearly with that of the irrigated regions who are owners of land rent the water for of California than any other country. a stated sum and at stated periods, exactly It is in the central portion of Spain that as is done in this State in cases where irrigation is most extensively carried on. large corporations have appropriated the This is a region 'something like 300 miles water and constructed expensive storage square, and is composed of a series of and distribution works. great plateaus, separated from each other Many conflicting laws and customs oband bounded north, east, south and partly tained in Spain in regard to the control of! on the west by ranges of mountains. Irrigation waters, and it was not until a These plateaus lie at elevations between recent date that any uniform system was 500 and 3500 feet above the sea, and slope adopted. Under the laws passed within generally from east to west. The moun- the past fifteen years, however, the Govtains on the east present a continuous ernment assumes control of all canals of formation as a chain, and rise to but mod- jirrigation and navigation, wholly paid for erate heights above the hills bordering with national funds, and all national river the plateau plains, but their eastern works; also the presenting or approval of slopes are abrupt, and dropping to near measures of police and administration of the level of the sea, leave a narrow fringe the use of public waters and streams in all of plain land between their feet cases. The provinces have administrative the Mediterranean, behind control of works of irrigation and irriga-, which they stand as a high, tion pertaining solely to their sevrugged range. North of the plateau re- eral territories and those paid for gion, and lying between it and the feet by their funds. The State may accord of the Pyrenees, is the valley of the Ebro, to a private individual, association, corunear 200 miles in length and from fifty to 100 munity, company, municipality or pro-, wide, opening out upon the Mediterran- vince the privilege of conducting any ean toward the east. South of the plateau enterprise which would come under its region lie the valleys of the Guadalquivir control. A province or a municipality and the Genil, sloping in the opposite di- may delegate to others its right of consection from that of the Ebro, and open- struction and immediate control of muniing out on the southwest coast of the cipal water works, but neither the State, country. South of these last named municipality nor province can forfeit its valleys lie the Sierra Nevada mountains, right of ultimate administrative control and and regulation of works and waters. The State is empowered to grant subsidies in aid of the construction of irrigation works. These may consist of a money gift of not to exceed 50 per cent of the actual cost of the works, of a premium of $1415 for each cubic foot per second of continuous flow developed, and of a further premium of $8 an acre for all the land irrigated. The Government reserves the right to expend under its own supervision all the money furnished under the 30 per cent regulation. When communities of irrigators wish to construct works to supply their own lands, the Government will subsidize them to the extent of 50 per cent of the cost of the works, and will also advance the other 50 per cent as a loan, to be repaid in small installments. This, it will be observed, meets most effectually the difficulty that is encountered under our district system in disposing of the bonds for the construction of works. When syndicates, companies or individuals apply for a concession for the construction of irrigation works the Government undertakes the preliminary surveys, the expense of which must be refunded by the applicants, and if, after due investigation, it be decided to grant the application a concession for a term of ninety-nine years is offered at public auction to the one who shall agree to carry out the terms thereof at the least expense. If two or more bidders name the same sum, then the concession is awarded to the one who shall agree to reduce the subsidy premium the most. the offers should still be equal on this point, then the concession is given to the bidder who places the tariff for irrigation at the lowest rates. If Torralba de Ri- Cost...... $3,300 1,505,000 558 420,000 39,700 50,000 245,500 5,000 1,562,400 65,200 280,000,000 3,400 After the concession is granted to the successful bidder the time is specified The valley of the Ebro is the scene of within which each section of the work is the modern works and of present progress to be completed. Forfeits are predeter- in irrigation, while the valley of the Guadmined and agreed to for partial failures. alquivir is the scene of ancient as well as Extensions of time are granted only when of very recent irrigation enterprise. But unforeseen natural circumstances are the the irrigated Spain of which the world has cause of delay. Concessions are forfeited heard the most is that handed down from upon non-compliance with conditions. the times of the Moors, in the valley of Such forfeiture is declared by the minis-the Genil in Granada, and in the valleys ter, and the enterprise and works are sold at auction for the benefit of creditors and the grantee. and plains opening out on the east coast of the country, where lie the garden lands of Murviedro, Valencia, Almansa, Alicante, Elche, Orihuela, Murcia and other irrigated and highly cultivated districts. Unlike the case of the great irrigated valley of Northern Italy, the irrigation disof Spain are very much scattered and subjected to physical conditions varying among themselves. Companies or individuals having concessions of this character are required to pay taxes on the lands owned by them, but under the general law of waters their capital and works are exempt from tax-tricts ation. Some interesting facts can be learned from the following statistics in regard to a number of the most prominent irrigation enterprises of Spain. They afford instructive comparisons in respect to the average duty of water, the cost of construction, and the average expense per acre of furnishing water. Among the principal canals are the following: Caroline J. Swyney According to the official reports, the area of irrigated land in Spain is 4439 square miles. The principal canals irrigate some 750,000 acres. There are many small canals and a few tanka or reservoirs, which increase this area considerably. Accepting the official reports, the great bulk of irrigation is done by wheels and norias. These wheels have buckets or C jars attached to the circumference, by means of which the water is raised. The motive power may be the current of the river, or it may be animal power. The remunerative character of this mode of cultivation can easily be shown. Near Valencia irrigated land is sold at from $700 to $900 per acre, while land of the same quality not irrigated only fetches $80 or less per acre. Land near Madrid is increased in value by irrigation from four to tenfold. About Castellon the tively liberal form of government and average price of irrigated land is $700 per amid a free and enlightened people. The acre, and for non-irrigated land $50 per Government of France has of late years acre. In the valley of the Esla irrigated specially encouraged irrigation in a vari land is worth $600 per acre and dry land ety of ways, and here one finds examples $50. Spain, indeed, may be described as a of irrigation enterprise both ancient and country where the water is more valuable modern, and of all grades and forms of than the land in a ratio of from five to organization, from the small private ditch twenty. The Spaniards have an experi-project to the large, costly and complete ence of 1000 years behind them, and they ought to be convinced of the value of this mode of cultivation. There is probably i no part of the world where water is more carefully applied, and there is certainly no country where the legislation on the subject is more clear and precise. In France, as well as its immediate southern neighbor, are found many climatic features which resemble those that exist in California. In large areas the rainfall is so light that irrigation is essential to the profitable cultivation of the soil, while there are still other extensive sections where farming operations are possible without the artificial application of water, though made much more profitable by that process. canal system, wholly built and managed as public works of the nation. As a general thing, however, Franco is less an irrigation country from necessity and for general profit than is California, the valleys of France, with exceptions limited to small regions, receiving from sixteen to thirty-two inches of rain each year, while ours of California receive only ten to eighteen inches as a general rule. The necessity for and value of irrigation in France was not sufficiently appreciated by the generations past to bring about a general sentiment in favor of national encouragement to irrigation enterprise. Irrigation there, as in California, has been until within the past few years looked upon more as a local necessity than as a valuable auxiliary to general agriculture. Hence there has not been that widespread appreciation of the subject among the people of France which we might expect to find recorded. The lands are very generally held in small tracts, and close and thorough tillage has taken the place of that wasteful but easy one of water, which is sometimes The departments of the Mouths-of-the Rhone and of Vaucluse, in Southeastern France, where irrigation is most common, are in a region of wide open plains or roll-substituted for skill and industry. The ing lands near to the level of the sea, where the temperature is high and rainfall very light, and artificial watering of all crops is an absolute necessity, even on the richest of soils. In the department of the Pyrenees, in Southwestern France, a peculiar irrigation of natural meadows and other vegetation is found in the mountain valleys high above the level of the sea, with destructive meteorological surroundings, while along the base of these mountains irrigation is again found on extensive plains and rolling lands of moderate elevation and medium range of temperature and precipitation. generally humble condition of the peasant proprietors may be judged from the fact that when the association for the Canal de l'Isle (Vancluse) was set on foot in 1845 there were 1414 subscribers, of whom 1095 desired irrigation for tracts less than one hectare (2.47 acres) each, and out of the whole number only four subscribed for areas greater than ten hectares (24.7 acres) each. The St. Julian canal, eighteen miles in length, irrigating from 6000 to 7000 acres, is the property of an association having 2060 members, and the Crillon canal, irrigating from 1600 to 2000 acres, has 750 subscribers. The French laws governing the ownerIn the department of Vosges, in North-ship and control of waters in running eastern France, is found that peculiar ir- streams have undergone many changes, rigation of meadow lands where water is, and have been productive of a great deal used almost continuously, notwithstand- of litigation. It is a well settled principle ing heavy rains well distributed through- now, however, that all streams and parts of streams that are navigable belong to out the year. the public domain and are subject to the control of the Government. The Government has the power at any time to declare any stream or portion thereof navigable, and thus assume control of its waters. For a long time it was claimed that unnavigable streams belonged to the parties flowed, In Northwestern France artificial water ing has reclaimed and made productive and populous vast tracts of lands formerly barren and covered with drifting sands or scanty natural pasturage. through whose lands they Throughout France market gardening and fruit-raising are largely dependent upon irrigation, which is very extensively but this position is not practiced for these purposes, as well as for growing fodder and plants used in manu- recognized by the Government, which facturing textile fabrics and dyestuffs. Of holds that all such streams are the comlate years, too, the application of water on mon property of the people. Riparian vineyards to drown out or prevent the proprietors have certain rights to the use spread of phylloxera has become quite of water for irrigation, but do not possess common, and is directly fostered by Gov-an exclusive right, the Government asernment aid in various ways. Besides the very great variety of physical conditions and results surrounding and attending irrigation we find in France an example of an attempted complete Governmental control of irrigation and water-right matters under a compara suming control and granting concessions for the diversion and use of such waters wherever needed. The fact of the ownership of the waters of unnavigable streams by the Nation as representing the whole people is now pretty well settled, while the same may be said with regard to navigable |