EFFINGHAM. A city and the county-seat of Effingham County, Ill., 101 miles east by north of Saint Louis, Mo., on the Vandalia Line, the Wabash, and the Illinois Central railroads (Map: Illinois, D 4). There are situated here colleges of photography and of photo-engraving. The chief industries are a milk-condensing and canning factory. Settled about 1850, Effingham was incorporated as a city in 1869. Population, in 1890, 3260; in 1900, 3774.

EFFLORESCENCE (from Lat. efflorescere, to blossom, from ex, out+florescere, inchoative of florere, to bloom, from flos, flower). A phe nomenon exhibited by many crystalline compounds when exposed to the air; the compounds lose their water of crystallization and change into pulverulent masses. The white incrustation that frequently shows itself on the walls of buildings is an example of efflorescence.

EFFORT (OF. effort, esfort, Fr. effort, It. sforzo, from ML. effortiare, to strengthen, from Lat. ex, out + fortis, strong). In psychology, a term applied to conscious exertion, whether it arises from severe exercise of a muscle, as the effort involved in lifting a heavy weight, or from the conscious 'strain' which is present in ratiocinative thinking, as in solving a mathematical problem. The latter kind of effort is sometimes called 'mental effort' or 'mental work'; although the tendinous sensations accompanying severe muscular exertion are no less mental, and, as conscious experiences, are the same in kind as the effort realized in 'hard thinking' or in an attempt to remember, or in the struggle to decide on a course of conduct. The existence of effort has been used as an argument in favor of a peculiar activity of consciousness, as indicating that 'mental force' is expended in voluntary ac tion; but it may also be looked upon as simply a complex of intensive organic sensations strongly toned with unpleasantness. In this case the 'work' is performed by the physiological processes accompanying effort. The prominent affective side of the experience is indicated in the common phrase 'feeling of effort.' Effort was for a long time held to be an essential part of the innervation sensation (q.v.); i.e. the sensation which was said to accompany the outflow of energy from the brain to the motor nerves. But this position has now been abandoned by most psychologists. See ATTENTION; CONATION.

EFFUSION (Lat. effusio, from effundere, to pour out. from ex, out + fundere, to pour). A term applied to the free outflowing of a gas through a pinhole, the resistance to the outflow being very small. The velocity of effusion is in the case of all kinds of gases found to be inversely proportional to square roots of their densities, and this holds good under all possible circumstances. An increase of the pressure exercised upon the gas has no effect on its rate of effusion. This appears somewhat strange on first thought; for it would seem that more gas should be expelled from a vessel by increased pressure. It is clear, however, that this, must necessarily be the case, if we remember that when the pressure of a gas increases, its density increases at precisely the same rate; an increase of density causes a diminution of the rate of effusion, and thus the effect of a greater ex

EGAN.

pelling force is exactly counterbalanced; so that the amount of gas actually flowing out through the hole remains unchanged.

Quite different from effusion is the phenomenon of transpiration of gases, i.e. the outflow of gases through long capillary tubes offering considerable resistance to their passage. The rate of transpiration of a gas depends on four factors: (1) the nature of the gas; (2) the density of the gas; (3) the pressure under which it is being expelled; and (4) the length of the tube. The first of these factors of course remains the same if one and the same gas is experimented The rate of upon under different conditions. portional to the density as well as to the extranspiration is then found to be directly propelling pressure, and to be inversely proportional to the length of the tube.

The phenomena of effusion and transpiration In the former the gases move in masses, in difare essentially different from those of diffusion. fusion they move by molecules. See DIFFUSION.

applied popularly and scientifically both to EFT, or EVET (AS. efete). A term formerly lizards and newts. It is now synonymous with newt, and in the United States red eft or evet is a local name of the spotted newt (Diemyctylus miniatus). See NEWT.

OF.

ÉGALITÉ, A'gà'lé'ta'. See ORLEANS, HOUSE

E'GAN, MAURICE FRANCIS (1852-). An American scholar, born in Philadelphia, and educated at La Salle College. In 1878 he became professor of English literature at Georgetown College, but subsequently was successively associated with McGee's Illustrated Weekly, the Catholic Review, and Freeman's Journal, of which he was chief editor from 1881 to 1888. Afterwards he became professor of English literature at the Catholic University, in Washington. His publications include a translation of Coppée's Pater; That Girl of Mine (1879); Preludes, a collection of poems (1880); Songs and Sonnets (1886); The Life Around Us, a collection of tales (1886); Lectures in English Literature (1889); The Disappearance of John Longworthy; St. Martin's Summer (1905); The Ghost in Hamlet, and other Essays (1906).

EGAN, PATRICK (1841-). An Irish-American politician. He was born in County Longford, Ireland, and became the head of an extensive flour and grain business in Dublin. He was an ardent Nationalist, and took an active part in the Home Rule movement in 1871 and in the organization of the Irish Land League, of which, in 1879, with Justin McCarthy and Biggar, he was one of the first trustees. In 1880, with Parnell and others, he was tried in Dublin for conspiracy and sedition, and after the acquittal of the defendants he removed to Paris, and in 1883 to the United States, settling in Lincoln, Neb. He continued his connection with the Irish movement, and from 1884 to 1886 was president of the Irish National League of America. His testimony before the Parliamentary Commission in 1889 brought about the collapse of the London Times's case against Parnell. In the United States Egan took an active part in the Blaine campaign of 1884, and for his services in the campaign of 1888 was rewarded by President Harrison with the post of Minister Plenipotentiary to Chile. There his active advocacy of

the cause of Balmaceda, the Liberal dictator in the Revolution of 1891, brought down upon him severe criticism in the United States. In the campaigns of 1896 and 1900 he left the Republican Party on the free-silver issue, and became a campaign speaker for his fellow-townsman, William Jennings Bryan.

er.

EGAN, PIERCE (1772-1849). An English writHe was born in London, and by 1812 had attracted considerable attention there by his articles in the newspapers on country sports. A series of articles describing the amusements of sporting men in town which were published under the title Life in London; or, the Adventures of Tom and Jerry (1824), also became very popular among Londoners. This book was illustrated by George Cruikshank, was one of Thackeray's early favorites, and is said to have furnished the hint for Dickens's Pickwick Papers.

EGAN, PIERCE (the younger) (1814-80). An English novelist and artist. He was born in London, and at an early age became successful as an illustrator. He is best known, however, as a novelist. His extravagant yarns were exceedingly popular for a time, as also were his numerous contributions to the 'penny-dreadful' papers of the day. Among his stories are: Wat Tyler (1851); Snake in the Grass (1858); Eve: or, the Angel of Innocence (1867); and Love Me, Leave Me Not (1860).

A

EGAÑA, â-gä'nyȧ, JUAN (1769-1836). Spanish-American statesman and author. He was born in Lima, Peru, and was educated at the College of Santo Toribio, where he was made a tutor in philosophy. He practiced law at Santiago, Chile; became one of the leaders of the Revolution of 1810, and was elected a member of the first Chilean Congress. After the defeat of the Chilean army at Rancagua, in 1814, he was imprisoned by the Spaniards on the island of Juan Fernandez, but was liberated through the victory of San Martin at Chacabuco in 1817, when he was again elected to the Congress of Chile, of which he became President in 1823. He was considered one of the best writers of his day, and his literary works, published in ten volumes, include poems and educational text-books, as well as numerous essays on legal, political, and various other subjects. His Cartas Pehuenchas were translated into English by their author, under the title of Pehuenchan Letters (1819).

EG BERT, or ECGBERHT (?-839). A king of the English. He was the son of Eahlmund, a king of Kent, and was descended from the early kings of the West Saxons. In his youth he was compelled to flee from England to avoid the hostility of Beorhtric, King of Wessex, and took refuge at the Court of Charles the Great. Here he remained probably for some thirteen years, until, in 802, he became King of the West Saxons. For the first thirteen years of his reign nothing is known of his acts. In 815 he conquered and laid waste Cornwall. Between 825 and 829 he subdued all the other kings in England, beginning with the ruler of Mercia, the most powerful rival of Wessex, and was recognized as Bretwalda. Kent, Sussex, and Essex were added to his kingdom and were ruled by his sons or nobles as under-kings. Northumbria, Mercia, and East Anglia were permitted to retain their self-government on acknowledging the supremacy of the West-Saxon King. For the first

time Egbert brought all of the English peoples under one overlord. In his last years he had to contend against the Danes, by whom he was defeated in 835, and over whom he was victorious in 837. Consult: Anglo-Saxon Chronicle (where the dates, however, are given wrongly); Green, The Making of England (London and New York, 1881); id., The Conquest of England (London and New York, 1883).

EGBERT, JAMES CHIDESTER (1859-). An American archæologist and epigraphist, born in New York City. He graduated in 1881 at Columbia University, where he afterwards held tutorships in Greek (1885-87) and Latin (188895). He was adjunct professor of Latin at Columbia University from 1895 to 1900, in which year he was appointed to the chair of Roman archæology and epigraphy. His works include an edition of Macmillan's Shorter Latin Course (1892); Cicero de Senectute (1895); and Introduction to the Study of Latin Inscriptions (1895).

EGEDE, a'ge-de, HANS (1686-1758). The first missionary to Greenland. He was born in Senjen, Norway, was educated at Copenhagen, and was settled as a Lutheran pastor at Vaagö from 1707 to 1717. A study of the Norse chronicles awakened in him a desire to visit Greenland, and convert to Christianity the descendants of the old Northmen, who he believed still lived there. In 1721, having secured the support of the Danish Government, he sailed for Greenland, but, on arriving, he found that the former Norse colonists had entirely disappeared. However, he resolutely turned his attention to converting and civilizing the Eskimos. From 1734 to 1740 he was principal of a seminary at Copenhagen, in which workers were trained for the Greenland mission, and in 1740 was made superintendent or bishop of the mission. He described his work in Greenland in Det gamle Grönland's nye Perlustration (1729), and is the author of a work on the natural history of Greenland, which has been translated into four languages.-PAUL EGEDE (1708-89), his son, succeeded him in the Greenland mission, and, later, in the bishopric, translated the Gospels into the Greenland language, and compiled a grammar and dictionary for the use of the missionaries and colonists.

EGELHAAF, àʼgel-häf, GOTTLOB (1848–). A German historian, born at Gerabronn (Württemberg). He studied at Tübingen, in 1895 became rector of the Karlsgymnasium at Stuttgart, and in 1901 lecturer in the technical institute there. Important among his publications are Kaiser Wilhelm I. (3d ed. 1888) and Deutsche Geschichte im Zeitalter der Reformation (3d ed. 1893). He also wrote a popular manual, Grundzüge der deutschen Litteraturgeschichte (14th ed. 1900).

EGER, a'ger (Bohemian Cheb). A town of Bohemia, situated on an eminence about 1450 feet above sea-level, at the foot of the Fichtelge birge, on the Eger, 66 miles west-northwest of Pilsen (Map: Austria, C 1). The chief building of interest is the house of the burgomaster, or town hall, in which, on February 25, 1634, Wallenstein was assassinated. The hall contains a museum of local antiquities, pictures, and relics of the famous general. In an angle of the old fortifications above the river stand

EGER.

the ruins of the imperial castle built by Frederick Barbarossa. From their midst rises a peculiar square black tower, constructed of blocks of lava. The graceful double chapel is worthy of notice. Among the churches may be mentioned the fine large church of Saint Nicholas, founded in the thirteenth century. Eger has numerous educational and charitable institutions. Its manufactures include woolen, cotton, and other textile fabrics, machinery, and leather goods. About four miles to the north of Eger, and reached by a broad avenue, is the watering-place of Franzensbad (q.v.). Population in 1890 (commune), 18,658; in 1900, 23, 665. Eger was founded probably at the beginning of the twelfth century, and came into the possession of Bohemia about 1320. The city suffered greatly in the wars of the Hussites, the Thirty Years' War, and the War of the Austrian Succession.

EGER, ĕg'ĕr. See ERLAU. EGE'RIA (Lat., from Gk. 'Hyepía). One of the Italian goddesses of streams or springs. She appears as the nymph of the stream in the grove of Diana at Aricia, and also as dwelling near the Porta Capena, at Rome, near the spot where Numa (q.v.) consecrated a grove to the kindred goddesses called Camenæ. Egeria is best known as the divine mistress or wife of Numa, whose inspiration and advice guided him in his reorganization of the ritual of the Roman State.

EGERTON, ěj'er-ton, FRANCIS. See BRIDGE

WATER.

EGG.

greatly enlarged, and one by one break loose from the ovarian membranes and begin to descend the oviduct. They are at this time simply spheres of yolk surrounding a small quantity of germinal protoplasm (the nucleus of the original cell), which appears on the surface of one side, as the 'tread' of popular speech (see ALLANTOIS; EMBRYOLOGY), and covered with an almost imperceptible membrance, the vitelline membrane, formed from the protoplasm of the egg itself. Yolk or deutoplasm is a granular, fatty, nutritive material or highly compact food, stored in the egg for the nourishment of the young. It is of two kinds-white and yellow. The white yolk forms a thin film over the surface of the yellow yolk, and passes also under the germinative vesicle where it forms a sort of bed, and from this point extends downward to the centre of the yellow yolk. The egg is passed into the saclike mouth of the oviduct, and then descends into the oviduct itself, where it is, or may be, fer

tilized, and along which it descends in a slow spiral course.

coverings, the first of which is the 'white,' or Here the yellow ball begins to receive its outer albumen, which is poured out from glands, and consists of about 86 per cent. of water, 12 per cent. of proteids, 1.5 per cent. of fat, and a little salt. This 'white of the egg' is formed in concentric layers (as may be seen in a hard-boiled egg), the innermost of which is somewhat tenacious, and is drawn out by the spiral rotation of the egg in its progress into threads at the opposite poles. "These threads," writes Coues,

EGG (AS. æg, Icel. egg, OHG. ei, Ger. Ei; connected with OChurch Slav. aye, yaye, Lat. ovum, Gk. bv, ōon, egg). The present article proposes to consider the external characteristics, qualities, and utilities of the eggs of animals, and more especially of birds, leaving to the articles EMBRYOLOGY, REPRODUCTION, etc., their biological relations and development. All animals except Protozoa produce eggs, which are essentially single cells of protoplasm, containing a nucleus in which rests the potentiality of life, plus, in most cases, food-material and an integument. Eggs may be produced singly or in very small numbers at long intervals, or frequently and in great numbers; they may be so minute as to be invisible to the unaided human eye, or may exceed a foot in diameter; and in relative size, as compared with the parent, they may be nearly a quarter as large or less than a millionth; they may never leave the parent except as waste matter, or may be extruded, either before or after fertilization; finally, those which are laid' may be cast out wholly naked to take an infinitesimal chance of survival, or may be more or less well secured against harm by protective coverings, or even become objects of care and protection on the part of the parents.

are called chalaza; they are the 'strings' rather unpleasantly evident in a soft-boiled egg, but serve the important office of mooring and steadying the yolk in the sea of white by adhesions eventually contracted with the membrane which immediately lines the shell. They are also intrusted with the duty of ballasting, or keeping the yolk right side up. For there is a 'right' side to the yolk-ball, being that on which floats the cicatricle or 'tread.' This side is also the lightest, the white yolk being less dense than the yellow; and the chalaza are attached a little below the central axis. The result is that if a fresh egg be slowly rotated on its central axis the tread will rise by turning of the yolkball in the opposite direction, till, held by the twisting of the chalaze, it can go no further; when, the rotation being continued, the tread is carried under and up again on the other side, resuming its superior position." The earliest embryologists (e.g. Fabricius ab Aquapendente 1600) attached considerable importance to the chalaze and to certain white particles, the grandines, contained in them, because these structures were erroneously supposed to give rise to the embryo bird.

TYPES OF EGGS OF AMERICAN SONG BIRDS.

Chewink. 15. Thrasher. 16. Meadow lark.

17. Raven.

THE EGG-SHELL. The deposits of albumen are overlaid, when the egg arrives at the constricted neck of the uterus, by a membrane secreted by the lining of the oviduct, and formed of albumen mixed with felted fibres. This is the egg-pod' lining the shell. It is double, and by the separation of its two layers at one end the 'air-chamber' is formed. The egg, now five or six hours old, in the case of the common fowl, passes on into the uterine dilatation of the oviduct, where it rests for about 20 hours, and receives from numerous villi in the lining of the walls an even coating of a viscid fluid thickly imbued with lime, which rapidly crystallizes and compacts into a calcareous somewhat felted shell around the whole egg. This is attached at many separate points to the shell-membrane, leaving numerous minute spaces between them filled with air through pipelike interstices in the shell. "Besides this mammillary and porous layer, the shell of most birds," according to Newton, "possesses a cutic ular layer. This outermost layer is the most variable part of the shell; it is apparently structureless, either very poor in calcine salts, and in this case smooth and shiny, or considerably infiltrated with calcareous matter, and then exhibiting the well-known chalky and often rough appearance of the eggs of the ani, cormorants, grebes, and flamingoes. Even when well developed this cuticular layer is always extremely thin. In the ostrich and in rhea it is hard and brittle, like the glaze of pottery; in the common fowl and turkey it is parchment-like; in auks and apparently in gulls it is absent. The cuticle is spread over the whole surface of the egg, and into the pits or surface-ends of the air-canals, which are therefore closed when such a cuticle is present. The latter, however, readily admits the passage of air when dry, but when wet or moist is impermeable to air." The very great differences observable in the surface of eggs, from rough and pitted to enameled, or polished, or translucently brilliant, is due to the varying crystalline structure of the shell. This has been very thoroughly worked out by German microscopists, whose extensive investigations are recorded in the Journal für Ornithologie for 1871 and subsequently, and who have shown that a well-defined type of shell-structure belongs to each of various groups. Further information is given in the Zoologischer Anzeiger (1885-87).

The porosity of the shell is needful, of course, in order to admit air to the embryo; and the pores are large enough to admit also some bacteria, so that after a short time eggs not energized by vital processes become corrupt and rotten. The various preservative processes that have been attempted to prevent decay depend for their success upon the complete exclusion of bacteria, and only succeed when they are begun before any infection has been received, and when they absolutely close all the pores of the shell. This can best be done by soaking in lime-water, in effect reinforcing and completing the natural shell.

NUMBER AND SIZE OF EGGS. The number of eggs that constitute a 'clutch' or 'set' is fairly uniform with each species, but differs greatly among different species. Pelagic water-fowl, and the larger birds of prey usually lay only one egg, rarely more than two; many game birds and lake and river fowl lay a dozen; wood

land and field birds average five, though in some species two or three are prevailing numbers, and in others, for example titmice, the clutch may consist of ten eggs. The number of eggs laid, except in cases correlated with peculiar circumstances in life history are so nearly constant among species of similar habit and bear so evident a relation to the average comparative danger to which the species is exposed, that naturalists recognize evidences of a seeming general principle which governs the size of the brood, and if any peculiarity should appear in the nesting or the rearing habits that might accrue to the welfare of the individual species, it is offset by a reduced reproductive power.

Another noteworthy fact is that great diversity exists in the size and weight of eggs as compared with the size and weight of the mother bird. Hewitson states, for example, that the raven and guillemot are of about equal size, but their eggs vary as four to one, the latter's being as big as those of an eagle. Still more remarkable for disproportionate bigness are the eggs of the Australian mound-birds, which measure 34 by 2% inches, though the hen is only about the size of a common fowl; and of the extinct moas, epiornis and the existing kiwis (Apteryx), that of one of the kiwis weighing nearly one-fourth as much as the hen which produces it. Much individual variation exists, and several factors seem to enter into the explanation; but in general eggs much larger than ordinary, relatively to the size of the mother, belong to birds whose precocial young will receive little or no help and care from their parents after birth, and hence must remain within the protection of the egg until they are considerably advanced toward maturity. requires a very much larger egg than is needed for the early-born, parent-supported, altricial birds, since a much greater quantity of food (yolk) must be stored up for them, and they It is plain that few must have room to grow. such eggs can be produced from the resources of the mother's organization, and as a matter of fact these huge eggs are laid singly; as a rule, relatively large eggs mean few in a brood.

This

SHAPE. In shape birds' eggs are rarely spherical, though the contained yolk is always so, but ordinarily is 'ovoid,' being much larger at one end than the other, and often nearly conical; while some are oblong, having a decided length but no excess of thickness at either end. Eggs laid in holes or deep, cup-like nests, where they cannot fall out, are likely to be spherical or ovoid; while those laid upon the ground, with little or no nest, are usually conoid, and likely to be large for the size of the bird. This shape gives them two advantages: first it enables them to lie more closely together, the points toward a common centre, so that they are easily covered by the brooding bird; and, second, in the case of eggs, like those of guillemots, which are laid upon bare ledges of sea-cliffs with no encircling nest, the conical shape prevents their being easily rolled or blown away when uncovered, because when moved they will tend to gyrate upon their points and not roll away. Among the services which the egg-shell performs the foremost is the protection of the embryo from injurious changes of temperature and from too much light. See GROWTH.