EBERHARD, JOHANN AUGUST (1739-1809). A German philosophical writer. He was born at Halberstadt, studied theology at Halle from 1756 to 1759, and after spending several years as a preacher in Berlin and Charlottenburg became professor of philosophy at Halle in 1778. Among his writings were treaties on ethics, æsthetics, the history of philosophy, and synonymy; especially notable were the Neue Apologie des Socrates (1772-73) and Allgemeine Theorie des Denkens und Empfindens (1776). He was a Leibnitzian, and toward the close of his life struggled, but without success, against the speculative views of the new schools of philosophy headed by Kant and Fichte. EBERLE, a'ber-le, ROBERT (1815-60). A German animal and landscape painter, born at Meersburg on Lake Constance. At first a pupil of Jakob Biedermann at Constance, he went to Munich in 1830, where he was much influenced by the works of Ruysdael and Dujardin in the Pinakothek. In 1848 he spent three months in America, but he returned to Munich, where he died from the effects of an accidental pistol-shot. He is particularly noted as a painter of sheep. His pictures are distinguished for good drawing and striking light effects. Among the most noteworthy are: "Shepherd Killed by Lightning Beside His Flock" (1842), Copenhagen Gallery; "Sheep and Cattle in Stable," Leipzig Museum; "Suabian Shepherd with Flock" (1853), Pinakothek, Munich; "Sheep Driven Over Precipice by an Eagle" (1858), Karlsruhe Gallery. His son ADOLF (1843-), born in Munich, is equally successful as a genre and animal painter. He studied at the Munich Academy, especially under Piloty. One of his best rural genre scenes, the "Seizure of the Last Cow" (1861), is in the Hamburg Gallery. Others are: "After the Baptism" (1868), for which he was awarded a medal in Vienna; "The First Deer" (1879); "Forester's Belated Dinner" (1888); "A Lucky Catch" (1891). A EBERLEIN, à′ber-lin, GUSTAV (1847–). German sculptor, born at Spiekershausen (Han over). He studied at the Art Academy of Nuremberg, and allied himself with the so-called realistic group of Berlin sculptors, of which Reinhold Begas (q.v.) is the chief representative. His best work has been done in imitation of the genre sculptures of ancient art, and includes such subjects as "Greek Flute-Player," "Psyche," "Wounded Nymph," and "The Archer." He also executed statues of the Emperor William I. at Elberfeld, Geislingen, Mannheim, Altona, and Ruhrort, and one of Frederick I. for the "Siegesallee," in Berlin. He published in 1892 Aus eines Bildners Seclenleben, Plastik, Malerei und Poesie. Consult Rosenberg, Eberlein (Bielefeld, 1903). EBERNBURG, àʼbèrn-bōork. A village in the Bavarian Palatinate, situated at the junction of the Alsenz with the Nahe, about 20 miles southwest of Mainz (Map: Germany, C 4). It is notable on account of its castle, which once belonged to the famous knight Franz von Sickingen, a devoted friend of the early Reformers. His stronghold, considered impregnable in olden times, afforded a secure retreat from danger and persecution to Melanchthon, Schwebel, Bucer, Ecolampadius, and also Ulrich von Hutten, the most distinguished bard of the Reformation and apostle of German unity. Hutten composed several of his works here. The castle was destroyed by the French in 1794. In 1841 it was rebuilt in its quaint ancient style. It now serves as a pleasure resort. The HuttenSickingen monument, half way up the hill, was unveiled in 1889. Population of village, in 1900, 818. In EBERS, a'bērs, EMIL (1807-84). A German genre painter, born in Breslau. He was a pupil of the Düsseldorf Academy, where he was much influenced by Lessing, Jordan, and Ritter. company with the latter two he visited the coasts of Holland and Normandy, and became much interested in the life of smugglers, fishermen, and sailors, from which the subjects of his best pictures are chosen. He also painted humorous military scenes. His works show good composition, careful study of detail, and harmonious coloring. The most noteworthy are: "Smugglers About to Land" (1830), National Gallery, Berlin; "Rescued Woman Among Fishermen" (1841); "Pilot Boat" (1845); and "Mutiny on a Brig" (1848), Breslau Museum. In EBERS, GEORG MORITZ (1837-98). A German Egyptologist and novelist, born in Berlin. 1856 he entered the University of Göttingen as a student of law, but soon became interested in Egyptology and devoted himself to that study in Berlin under Lepsius, Brugsch, and Bückh. Receiving his degree in 1862, he spent the next three years at work in the principal Egyptological museums of Europe. In 1865 he became lecturer, and in 1869 associate professor of In 1869 and 1870 he Egyptology at Jena. traveled extensively in Egypt and Nubia, and in the latter year accepted a call to Leipzig as associate professor. Two years later he again visited Egypt, where he discovered the celebrated hieratic medical papyrus, since known as the Papyrus Ebers. Dating from about 1550 B.C., it is one of the best preserved Egyptian papyri in existence, and forms the chief source of information in regard to the medical knowledge of the ancient Egyptians. A facsimile (110 plates) was published in 1875 by the discoverer, with an introduction written by himself and a hieroglyphic-Latin glossary by L. Stern. The papy rus is now in the library of the University of Leipzig. Among Ebers's scientific works may be mentioned his Disquisitiones de Dynastia XXVI. Regum Egyptorum (1865), and Aegypten und die Bücher Mosis (1868). His Durch Gosen zum Sinai (1872, 2d ed. 1881) is partly of a popular character. He also wrote Aegypten in Wort und Bild (2d ed. 1880, 2 vols., illustrated), and Richard Lepsius, ein Lebensbild (1885). Ebers's reputation as a novelist was established by his Eine ägyptische Königstochter (1864), a charming picture of Egyptian life at the time of the Persian conquest. Of his later novels, Uarda (1877), Homo Sum (1878), Die Schicestern (1879), Der Kaiser (1880), and Serapis (1885) deal with periods of Egyptian history. Others of his novels, among them Die Frau Bürgermeisterin (1881) and Ein Wort (1882), are located either in Holland or South Germany, in the sixteenth century, while his Eine Frage (1881) is an idyl of ancient Greek life. In 1876 Ebers became partially paralyzed, and for the rest of his life suffered from continued ill health. He usually spent the summer at his EBERS. country place at Tutzing, near Munich, and there he died. An excellent sketch of Ebers by the historian Eduard Meyer is to be found in Biographisches Jahrbuch und deutscher Nekrolog, vol. iii. (Berlin, 1898). EBERSWALDE, à'bers-väl'de. A town of the Prussian Province of Brandenburg, situated on the Finow Canal, about 27 miles northnortheast of Berlin (Map: Prussia, E 2). It has become a favorite summer resort on account of its delightful situation, in the midst of fine groves and pine forests. It has mineral springs. It is an industrial centre, having extensive manufactures of railway cars and locomotives, horseshoe nails, roofing, felt, and cement. Pop., in 1890, 16,114; in 1900, 21,619; in 1905, 23,846. EBERT, a'bert, ADOLF (1820-90). A German philologist, born at Cassel. He studied at Marburg, Leipzig, Göttingen, and Berlin, became professor at Marburg, and in 1862 professor of Romance philology at Leipzig. From 1862 to 1873 he also held the chair of English philology. His most important work is his Allgemeine Geschichte der Litteratur des Mittelalters im Abendlande (1874-87). In 1859 he established with Ferdinand Wolf the Jahrbuch für romanische und englische Litteratur, to the first five volumes of which he contributed. His study was directed chiefly toward an examination of the connection between the Romance literature of the Middle Ages and the Latin and German literature of the same period. EBERT, KARL EGON (1801-82). An Austrian poet. He was born at Prague, and was educated there and at Vienna, and after filling several positions settled in Prague. His chief works are his Dichtungen (1824; 3d ed. 1845); Wlasta, ein böhmisch-nationales Heldengedicht in drei Büchern (1829); and Das Kloster, idyllische Erzählung in fünf Gesängen (1833); Bretislaw und Jutta (1835); a collection of sonnets entitled "Ein Denkmal für Karl Egon, Fürsten von Fürstenberg" (1855); and the didactic poem "Fromme Gedanken eines weltlichen Mannes" (1859). He likewise wrote a large number of dramas, of which Das Gelübde was the best. His poetical works were published in seven volumes (1877). EBERTH, a'bert, KARL JOSEF (1835-). A German bacteriologist and anatomist. He was born at Würzburg, studied at the university there, became professor of pathological anatomy at Zurich in 1865, and in 1881 was called to a similar chair at Halle. The results of his anatomical researches, including "Ueber den Peitschenwurm" (1859) and "Ueber Nematoden" (1863), appeared chiefly in Rudolph Virchow's Archiv für pathologische Anatomie. His investigations as a bacteriologist have to do principally with the bacillus of typhoid fever. EBINGEN, a'bing-en. A town in Württemberg, Germany. 37 miles south of Tübingen by rail, situated amid beautiful hill scenery. It has manufactures of woolens, clothing, etc. Population, in 1900, 9001; in 1905, 10,013. EBIONITES, 'bi-o-nits (Lat. Ebionitæ, from Heb. 'ebyonim, poor). A name originally desig nating all Christians, contemptuously applied to them on account of their poverty. Later the name was employed, because of its Hebrew origin, to designate Christians of Jewish blood. Still later, when Jewish Christians had separated from the great body of the Church and displayed heretical tendencies, the name was appropriated to them. Isolated as they now were, they fell into a number of sectarian divisions, to one of which in particular the term was sometimes confined (in distinction from another sect called the 'Nazarenes'). Irenæus describes the Ebionites as Jewish Christians who hold to the Mosaic law, reject Paul as an apostate, and employ the Gospel of Matthew, but reject the miraculous birth, and regard Christ as Origen styled all Jewish Christians Ebionites, and distinguished two classes, one of which accepted and the other denied the virgin birth. The most detailed accounts are found in Epiphanius. Against Heretics. They lingered in Palestine and Syria till the fifth century, but were few and unimportant after the second. See CLEMENT OF ALEXANDRIA; ESSENES; OLD CATHOLICS. a mere man. EB'LIS. See IBLIS. died in 1898. was EBNER-ESCHENBACH, ab'ner ĕsh'en-bäG, An Austrian MARIE, Baroness von (1830—). novelist, dramatist, and poet. Born a Countess Dubsky at Castle Zdislawitz, Moravia, she an Austrian officer, who married, in 1848, She lived alternately at her Her first publicabirthplace and in Vienna. tions are dramas now unimportant. Her fiction, which attracted immediate attention, begins with This Erzählungen (1875). followed by Božena (1876); Neue Erzählungen (1878); Dorfund Schlossgeschichten (1884); Zwei Comtessen (1885); Neue Dorf- und Schlossgeschichten (1886); Das Gemeindekind (1887); Lotti die Uhrmacherin (1889); Ein kleiner Roman (1889); Miterlebtes (1890); Unsühnbar (1890); Margarete (1891); Drei Novellen (1892); Glaubenslos? (1893); Das Schädliche and Die Totenwacht (1894); Rittmeister Brand and Bertram Vogelweid (1896); Alte Schule (1897) ; Aus Spätherbsttagen (1901); Agave (1903); Die arme Kleine (1904). She wrote also a popular collection of Aphorismen (1880), and verses collected as Parabeln, Märchen und Gedichte (1892). Her collected works were published in 1893-1901. Her work is distinguished for its power of description, its psychological insight, its humor, wit, and polished precision of style. Her sense of proportion in novelistic construction has also been highly praised. For her biography, consult: Necker (Berlin, 1900), and Bettelheim (ib., 1900). EBOLI, b'ô-lê (Lat. Ebura). A city in South Italy, 50 miles southeast of Naples (Map: Italy, K 7). It is picturesquely situated on a hill a few miles from the Gulf of Salerno, of which it has a magnificent view. From it the princely House of Eboli was named. Population, in 1901, 12,407. EBOLI, ANNA DE MENDOZA, Princess of (154092). A Spanish courtier, with the further titles of Duchess of Francavilla and Princess of Melito. She was a prominent and influential figure at the Court of Philip II. of Spain, and played a conspicuous role in many of the intrigues of the time. She is best known as a character in Schiller's drama Don Carlos. EBONY (older form ebon, OF. ebene, Lat. ebenus, Gk. Bevos, ebenos, ebony; probably of Sem. origin; cf. Heb. pl. habnim, ebony, lit. dark, ultimately probably of Egyptian origin). The hard, heavy, and dark-colored heart-wood of a number of species of trees. The genus Diospyros, of the order Ebenacea, is the source of most of the ebony of commerce. The best quality is obtained from Diospyros ebeneum, a large tree of India, Ceylon, and other tropical countries. Logs of ebony of this species, 10 to 15 feet in length, with the heart-wood 2 feet in diameter, are common. Ebony of good quality is obtained in Coromandel from Diospyros melanoxylon, and also from Diospyros tomentosa and other species of India, Madagascar, and Mauritius. The Calamander wood is from Diospyros hirsuta; the Cadoobergia wood is a peculiar kind of wood with striped effect obtained from Diospyros ebeneum. Ebony is furnished by the allied Maba ebenus of Molucca, and by a number of trees of the order Leguminosa. Among these latter may be mentioned a variety obtained in Abyssinia from Millettia, and the West Indian ebony (Brya ebenus). The American species of Diospyros (Diospyros Virginiana and Diospyros Texana) often supply a fairly good quality of ebony. The wood is chiefly used as a veneer by cabinetmakers. It is very heavy, and takes a high polish. The beauties of this wood were well known to the Greeks and Romans, who inlaid it with ivory for contrast. It is mentioned in choked up with sand, and, to render it navigable, a canal called the San Carlos has been carried through the southern side of the delta. Its principal affluents are the Najerilla, Jalón, Huerva, and Guadalope from the right, and the Aragon, Gallego, and Segre from the left, which drain the southern slopes of the Pyrenees. The course of the Ebro is chiefly through narrow and sometimes rocky valleys; its bed is characterized by many shoals and rapids which interrupt the navigation. This is partly remedied, however, by means of the Imperial Canal, which extends from the vicinity of Tudela to a point 40 miles below Saragossa, the principal city on the river. EBSTEIN, ěp'stin, WILHELM (1836-). German physician, born at Jauer, Silesia. was educated at Breslau and Berlin, and in 1874 became professor of medicine at the University of Göttingen and director of the Medical Polyclinical Institute at that institution. His writings, several of which contain valuable suggestions as to dietetic cures, include "Nierenkrankheiten," vol. ix. of Ziemssen's Handbuch (2d ed., 1878); Die Fettleibigkeit (Korpulenz) und ihre Behandlung nach physiologischen Grundsätzen A He (7th ed., 1887); Die Kunst das menschliche Leben zu verlängern (1891); Lebensweise der Zuckerkranken (2d ed., 1898); Handbuch der (1898). EBULLITION, or BOILING. See HEAT. the Scriptures as an article of Tyrian importa- praktischen Medizin, with Dr. Julius Schwalbe tion. The wood is somewhat pungent, and was once thought to have medicinal value. Ebony is exported in considerable quantity from Egypt, Zanzibar, Madagascar, Mauritius, Ceylon, India, and Jamaica. What is known as 'bastard ebony' is exported in considerable quantities from Brazil. It is produced by the tree Jacaranda ovalifolia. True ebony wood is so intensely dark in color that the term black as ebony' is a wellknown colloquialism. See JACARANDA WOOD. EBOR ACUM. See YORK. EBRARD, a'brärt, JOHANNES HEINRICH AUGUST (1818-88). A German Reformed theologian and miscellaneous writer. He was born at Erlangen, January 18, 1818. He studied at Erlangen and Berlin, became professor at Zurich in 1844, at Erlangen in 1847, removed to Speyer in 1853, but in 1861 returned to Erlangen and resumed his lectures. From 1875 he was pastor of the French Reformed Church at Erlangen. He was a voluminous writer both in theology and lighter literature. Those of his theological works translated into English include The Gospel History (1863), and Apologetics (1886-87). He also published: Die iro-schottische Missionskirche des sechsten bis achten Jahrhunderts (1873); Bonifatius, der Zerstörer des columbanischen Kirchentums auf dem Festlande (1882); Lebensführungen (1888); and many dramas, poems, etc. When writing upon non-theological subjects he generally used a pseudonym-Christian Deutsch, Gottfried Flammberg, or Siegmund Sturm. He died at Erlangen, July 23, 1888. E'ERO (Lat. Iberus). One of the largest rivers of Spain, rising in the Province of Santander, in the north central part of the country, on the southern slope of the Cantabrian Mountains (Map: Spain, E 2). After a tortuous course in a southeasterly direction of about 450 miles, it empties into the Mediterranean at Cabo de Tortosa. It drains an area of about 30,000 square miles, and has a delta which extends far into the sea. Its mouth is EBUL'LIOSCOPE (Lat. ebullire, to boil, from e-, out + bullire, to bubble, from bulla, bubble + Gk. σкоTEV, skopein, to look). An apparatus for ascertaining the strength of distilled liquors by observing the boiling-point and the atmospheric pressure. EÇA DE QUEIROZ, à ́sä dâ kāʼê-rôsh, José MARIA (1845-1900). A Portuguese author, born at Povoa do Varzim. He was educated at the University of Coimbra, was a collaborator on the staff of As Farpas, a critical journal, in 1871, and was appointed Portuguese consul successively at Havana, Newcastle, Bristol, and Paris. His best-known publications are his works of prose fiction, O crime do Padre Amaro (1874; thoroughly revised edition, 1880), O primo Basilio (1877; in French translation by Rattazzi-Ruth, German by C. and H. Michaelis), and A. Reliquia (1886; 2d ed. 1891). ÉCARTÉ, a'kär'tā' (Fr., discarded, p.p. of écarter, to discard, from Lat. ex, out + charta, Gk. xáprns, chartēs, paper). A game of cards usually played by two persons, though, in the form called pool écarté, three or even more may take part in it. In this case the third player takes the place of the loser in the first game, and the pool accumulates until one player wins two (or three) games in succession. In French écarté, bystanders are permitted to advise, and the player losing leaves the table, his adviser taking his place. If, however, the loser is playing la chouette (i.e. taking all bets offered), he need not retire on losing. The sixes, fives, fours, threes, and twos are removed from a pack, and the player cutting highest deals. He gives five cards, by two and three at a time, to his opponent and himself, and turns up the eleventh card for trumps. The trump card, if a king, counts one for the dealer. His adversary. if satisfied with his hand, plays; if not satisfied, ÉCARTÉ. proposes, which means, briefly, that he wishes ner of a trick leads to the next. The second ECCARD, êk'kärt, JOHANNES (1553-1611). A German composer of Church music. He was born at Mühlhausen (Thuringia), was a pupil of Orlando Lasso at Munich, and became assistant conductor in 1583 and chapelmaster in 1599 at Königsberg. In 1608 he was chief conductor of the Elector's chapel in Berlin. His songs, cantatas, and chorales live by reason of their harmony and religious feeling. Among the collection of his songs are "Geistliche Lieder" (1579), and "Preussische Festlieder" (1642, posthumous). Man). This expression is derived from the words ECCE HOMO, ěh’sẽ hơ mở (Lat., Behold the spoken by Pilate on showing Christ to the multitude (John xix. 5) previous to His being led forth to crucifixion, and is applied to paintings representing Christ bound and crowned with thorns. One of the finest "Ecce Homos" is that of Correggio, in the National Gallery in London, but the best known are those of Guido Reni. ECCE HOMO: A STUDY OF THE LIFE AND WORK OF JESUS CHRIST. A religious work by John Robert Seeley, professor at Cambridge University, England, which appeared anonymously in 1865, and was designed to show the humanity of Christ. Its contents created some controversy within the Protestant Church. ECBAT'ANA (OPers. Hangmatāna, written ECCENTRIC (from Lat. eccentros, Gk. EKKEVHagmatāna, probably place of assembly, from Tpos, ekkentros, eccentric, from K, ek, out + ham, Skt. sam, together + gam, to come; Babyl. Kévтpov, kentron, centre). A mechanical contriAgamatanu, Agamtanu, Heb. Achmetha, Lat. vance for obtaining an alternating rectilinear moEcbatana, Gk. 'Exßárava, Ekbatana, 'Ayßárava, tion from a revolving shaft. It consists of a Agbatana). The ancient capital of Media. It circular disk fixed on a shaft in such a position was situated at a distance of 12 stadia (about that the latter does not pass through the centre of 11⁄2 miles) from Mount Orontes, the modern the disk. The disk, which has a groove upon its Elvend. It lay upon a conical hill, crowned by circumference, is surrounded by a hoop to which a temple of the sun, and was inclosed by seven is attached a rod. As the eccentric revolves with concentric walls, the innermost of which was the shaft, the hoop is alternately raised and gilded and the next plated with silver; while lowered, thus imparting a to-and-fro motion the rest, in their order outward, were painted to the rod. The extent of the rise and fall of orange, blue, scarlet, black, and white. The city the rod is equal to twice the distance between is said to have been nearly 30 miles in cir- the centres. The eccentric is chiefly used where cumference. Its principal buildings were the a subsidiary motion of small power is requiredcitadel a stronghold of enormous dimensions, as for working the force-pump that supplies the where also the archives were kept in which boiler of a steam-engine, or for operating slideDarius found the edict of Cyrus the Great con- valves for steam-engines. See CRANK; CAM; cerning the rebuilding of the temple at Jerusa STEAM-ENGINE. lem-and the royal palace. The mild climate and the magnificence of its structure singled out Ecbatana as the favorite summer residence, first of the Median, then of the Persian, and lastly of the Parthian monarchs. After the battle of Arbela (B.c. 331), Alexander followed Darius thither and secured immense booty. It was again pillaged by the Seleucida; but such were the riches of this place that Antiochus the Great still found 4000 talents' worth of silver, equivalent to more than $4,000,000, to carry away. Ecbatana subsequently fell into the hands of the Parthians, and it has since so utterly sunk into decay that its site can no longer be fixed upon with certainty. But nowadays, scholars generally agree that the present Hamadan, with the reputed tombs of Mordecai and Esther (see HAMADAN), occupies the site of ancient Ecbatana. Excavations on the site would no doubt yield valuable finds in the way of antiquities. There was another Ecbatana in Persia, which was given to the Magi, and a third in Syria, at the foot of Carmel, the present Haifa, where Cambyses, the son of Cyrus, died. ECCENTRIC, or ECCENTRIC CIRCLE. It was a fundamental doctrine with the ancient astronomers that every heavenly body moved in a circle (the perfect figure') and at a uniform rate. But some of them appeared to move unsteadily, and in other figures than circles. Of course, this was considered a mere deceptive appearance. To explain it, they invented the 'eccentric circle.' Suppose a body, such as the sun, to move in a circle at a uniform rate. To an observer at the centre of the circle, the uniformity of the motion is evident-i.e. the sun is seen to travel through equal angular distances in equal times. But to an observer situated at some point half way between the centre of the circle and the circumference, the angular distances traveled through in equal times appear unequal. If, then, the earth, instead of being at the centre of the sun's orbit, be supposed to occupy a position away from it, the want of regularity in the sun's movements is explained. Accordingly, to reconcile the observed fact with their fundamental doctrine, the ancients placed the earth at a point away from the centre of the sun's supposed orbit. The orbit itself was called 'the eccentric,' because its centre did not coincide with that of the earth, which was considered to be the centre of the universe. ECCENTRICITY. A mathematical term used in connection with certain curves. The eccentricity of the hyperbola (q.v.) or of the ellipse (q.v.) is the ratio of the distance between the foci to the major diameter of the curve. The modern use of the term, however, extends to all conics, defining it as the ratio of the focal distance of any point on the curve to the distance from the directrix. Regarding the earth's orbit as an ellipse, its eccentricity is approximately 0.01677. ECCHELLENSIS, or ECHELLENSIS, ěk'kel-len'sis, ABRAHAM (?-1664). An Arabic scholar. He was born at Ekchel or Eckel (whence his name), Syria, near the close of the sixteenth century. He was educated in the Maronite College in Rome, and became professor of Arabic and Syriac in the College of the Propagandists. In Paris he assisted for a year (1640-41) in the preparation of Le Jay's Polyglot Bible. He published several Latin translations of Arabic works. He died in Rome, 1664. ECCHYMOSIS, èk'ki-mo'sis (Neo-Lat., from Gk. ék, ek, out + xvuós, chymos, juice, from xev, chein, to pour). A discoloration of the surface, produced by blood effused below or in the texture of the skin, as in a black eye or bruise. It is usually attended by swelling to a greater or less extent, and is the result of injury. ECCLEFECHAN, ěk"l-fěк'an. A small vil lage of Dumfriesshire, Scotland, 20 miles north of Carlisle (Map: Scotland, E 4). Thomas Carlyle was born and buried there, and the village is believed to be the 'Entepfuhl' of his Sartor Resartus. ECCLES, ěk'k'lz (from Lat. ecclesia, from Gk. EKKλŋola, ekklesia, church). A municipal borough of Lancashire, England, picturesquely situ ated on the Irwell and the Manchester Ship Canal, about four miles west of Manchester, of which it is practically a suburb (Map: England, D 3). It was incorporated in 1892. Its water-supply is derived from Manchester, and its gas from Salford. The town owns its electric plant and streetrailway lines, the latter being operated by a private company; it maintains public baths, a market, cemetery, and recreation grounds. The chief industry is the manufacture of cotton goods. Population, in 1891, 29,700; in 1901, 34,400. ECCLESFIELD, èk'k'ls-feld. A town in the West Riding of Yorkshire, England, five miles north of Sheffield (Map: England, E 3). The chief manufacture is cutlery, but linen and nails are also produced. There are coal and iron mines in the vicinity. Population, in 1891, 26,000; in 1901, 24.100. The town derives its name from a very ancient church founded here probably as early as the Conquest. ECCLESIA, ěk-klēʻzi-à (Lat., from Gk. Kλŋria, ekklesia, assembly, from èk, ek, out + Kalev, kalein, to call). (1) A term commonly used to denote the popular assembly of the Athenians, in which all free citizens might vote. Its authority was supreme, though ordinarily only those citizens could be present who lived in the immediate vicinity of Athens, and 6000 was regarded as a large attendance. A popular assembly is part of the Greek State in the Homeric poems, but with the growth of the power of the nobles, such a body, if it existed at Athens, was seldom convoked and of no practical authority. Solon (B.C. 594) first made it a power by admitting to it all citizens, and giving it some power in the election of oficials. With the establishment of the Clisthenian democracy, the supremacy of the ecclesia was firmly estab lished. At first it seems to have met only once in each prytany, i.e. the period of 35 or 36 days, into 10 of which the Athenian year was divided, but later it met regularly four times in a prytany, while extra meetings could be called by the prytanes. The prytanes were the 50 senators of that one of the 10 tribes which at that time was acting as standing committee of the Senate. In the fifth century B.C., the epistatés or chairman of the prytanes presided, but later a committee of nine, one from each of the other nine nine. tribes, was chosen as proedroi, and presided over the meetings. Those who attended the ecclesia received pay probably after B.C. 400, at first one obol, later three oboli, and at last even six or The ecclesia was opened with sacrifice and prayer, and then the business was laid before the adopted by the Senate. These were open to assembly in the form of resolutions already alteration to any extent, but no business might be presented to the assembly before passing the Senate. Any Athenian citizen might speak. The vote was regularly taken by show of hands; only when the decree affected a single individual were ballots used. When the business had been finished the prytanes dismissed the ecclesia. Sparta, also, there was a popular assembly, called Apella (Area), which met once a month, to vote on the proposals of the Council of Ephors. There was no free debate, and as a rule only the officials seem to have spoken. It is not known what was the nature of the little In ecclesia at Sparta mentioned once by Xenophon. The voting at Sparta was by acclamation, and not by ballot. The majority was determined by the comparative volume of sound, or, if that was doubted, by a division and counting of the two parties. (2) In the Greek of the New Testament, ecclesia is the name for the company of Christ's disciples professing to trust Him as their Saviour and to obey Him as their Lord. It is applied to a small assembly of them, such as were members of one family, or could meet in a dwelling-house of ordinary size; to the whole number in one city or neighborhood; to the whole number on earth; to all that are in heaven; and heaven. It has other meanings, but is usually to the innumerable company on earth and in rendered Church. ECCLESIASTES, ěk-klē'zī-ăs'tēz (Lat.. from Gk. Ekkλnolaorýs, ekklēsiastés, one concerned with an assembly, from ẻккλŋơía, ekklēsia, assembly). A philosophical book belonging to the third division of the Old Testament collection known as Hagiographa. The Hebrew name is Koheleth, which is translated into Greek as Ecclesiastes, on the supposition that the Hebrew stem underlying Koheleth is to be taken in the sense of assembly, so that Koheleth is one who addresses or convenes an assembly, i.e. a preacher. This explanation of the name, however, is doubtful, a strong objection to it being that it does not account for the feminine ending which the Hebrew |