Before entering on the theory of articulation, we must notice more fully these peculiar French sounds-to which we merely adverted at page 17.

FRENCH SEMI-NASAL VOWELS.

This formation of vowel finds no place in correct English utterance, though common in French. The only nasal sounds in English are M, N, and NG, in which the voice issues entirely by the nose-though for the first two it passes into the mouth also, where it is obstructed by the positions of the lips and tongue. M and N are heard in French, but the beautifully imitative bellsound NG, does not occur in that language. Instead of this, however, there is a series of semi-nasal sounds, represented by en, in, on, un, and by various other literal combinations. In forming them, the soft palate is depressed sufficiently to open the nasal passages, but not so much as, by contact with the tongue, to obstruct the passage into the mouth. This is the difference between

the English ng, and these French elements which give so much difficulty to English learners of French. The English ng brings the tongue and soft palate in contact, and consequently prevents the issue of breath by the mouth. NG has always, therefore, a uniform sound; it is incapable of any marked change of vowel quality. The French sounds, having an oral as well as a nasal passage, are capable of being affected by changes in the position of the mouth. There are four recognised varieties of them. French grammarians evince a high antipathy to the imputation that their language contains a greater number of nasal sounds than the English. They grant the ungracefulness, generally, of such sounds, and exultingly point to the three marks of our nasals, while they have but two (m and n,) as a proof that the English language has in reality the unenviable superabundance. But the French has unquestionably six nasal sounds, four of which are vowels, that is, they are formed by a position, and not an action of the organs-and two only, articulations. There are, therefore, in French, not less than double the number of the English nasal elements. Yet, in truth, the English three occur as frequently in speech as the French six; but from their liquid or transparent nature, they are so fluent and thin, as often to be little more than perceptible: they do not therefore strike the ear with half the

sense of nasality that the long French elements do. When the English nasals are before breath articulations, as in lamp, tent, prince, inch, ink, &c., they are so abrupt as to be scarcely vocal; and only when they are final, or before voice articulations, as in anger, amber, wander, &c., are they correctly capable of prolongation. The numerous terminations in ion, ing, nt, nd, nk, nce, &c. produce a very frequent recurrence of them, but it is in unaccented syllables, where their natural abruptness is shortened to the utmost. The French nasals, on the contrary, are never short; but, in most instances, they are the longest sounds in the language; and they linger in the unhabituated ear with an effect which makes the language seem to be almost altogether nasal. And there can be no doubt that the habit of forming sounds of this mixed and impure character must incline the Frenchman to give a partial nasality to many other vowels than those which are legitimately nasal.

With reference to the formation of the semi-nasal vowels, it is amusing to see the way in which French grammarians account for their nasal quality. In a well known grammar of French Rhetoric, by an eminent and talented author, we find the following description of the " organic formation of French nasal vowels." "The formation of the nasal sound appears to be generated chiefly from the nostrils,"-(all vocal sounds are generated in the glottis,)—"not that the sound is exhaled from them, as is erroneously supposed by many, but the air, ascending at first from the lungs to the nose, seems to acquire there a nasal power; and, descending afterwards into the mouth, it produces, coming in contact with the atmosphere, that nasal sound which, although not very gracious, is sometimes manly and powerful." In giving directions for the formation of these sounds, the author adds, "Let the air, by an internal motion, be sent immediately from the throat into the nostrils," *** "it will then descend into the mouth, and come out with a nasal power."

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What a most extraordinary power of direction the French must possess, if they thus manage to make the obedient vocal stream flow into the open nostrils without passing through them! But the thing is absurd. All the air in the nostrils will 66 come in contact with the atmosphere" from the nose; it must pass through, unless the nostrils be plugged up by snuff, or polypus, pinched with the fingers, or otherwise obstructed. And though the nostrils are obstructed, the voice may still get its "nasal

power in them; for, as these elements have a partial channel in the mouth, they are not liable to be more affected by nasal obstruction than to have their sound slightly muffled. In this respect they are unlike the English elements M, N, and NG, which, having no oral opening, must have a free nasal passage, or the obstructed voice will collect in the pharynx, and become explosive; so that M, N, and NG, will be converted into B, D, and G, with that muffled nasal murmur, with which every sufferer from "cold in the head " is quite familiar. The French grammarians indeed seem ashamed to confess their obligations to the nose, though they are clearly indebted to that organ for the modification of a large proportion of their sounds.

To show the difference in quantity between the English and French nasals, take any words in the two languages, having an equal number of them, and contrast their pronunciation. The English word transcendent contains as many nasal elements as the French transcendant, but they do not produce one fourth of the quantity of nasal sound; and many French phrases may be found which do not contain a single pure vowel, as, for example, "pendant long temp;" "l'enfant mangeant son pain," &c.

In English, the slightest nasal quality in a vowel is an impurity and a barbarism.

We have been led into a longer notice of these French sounds than might have been expected or considered necessary in this work; but it is because we have seen no just explanation of these peculiar sounds in French grammars, but, on the contrary, erroneous theories of their formation, and inadmissible comparisons of them with the English nasals. We believe we have shown that the French language has double the number of nasal elements that occur in English; that the quantity of nasal sound in French is far more than double that in English; and that the French language is altogether deficient of that most expressive articulation, which is represented by the digraph NG, in English.

ARTICULATIONS.

ALL actions of the vocal organs which partially or wholly obstruct, or which compress the breath or voice, are called ARTICULATIONS. The necessary effect of such obstruction or compression, is a degree of explosiveness in the breath, when the conjoined or

approximated organs are separated. Hence arises an element of audibility, produced by, or within the mouth, which we have stated to be the distinguishing characteristic of this class of the elements of speech.

When the current of breath (unvocalized) is altogether stopped by organic contact, as in P, T, K, the only audibility that the letter so formed can have, is the puff or explosion which follows the separation of the organs. This must, therefore, be clearly heard, or the letter is practically lost. In the mode of producing this little effect, lies one of the most important principles of speech, a principle on the right application of which depends much of a speaker's distinctness, and all his ease. We shall here, therefore, endeavour to give an intelligible explanation of this principle, and we shall occasionally hereafter refer to it, that this new and important subject may have a due degree of prominence.

Let the student pronounce a word ending with P, T, or K,— as lip, lit, lick,—and endeavour to make the final letter as long as possible:—he will find he only prolongs silence; for, until the articulating organs are separated, there is no sound of voice or breath audible. The separation of the organs, after contact, is thus necessary for these letters; and on this disjunction the compressed air within the mouth will make its escape. Now, here lies the point of importance. If only the breath in the mouth, and not that in the lungs be ejected, a distinct, sharp, quick percussion will be heard, which gives to these shut breath articulations all the audibility of which they are susceptible. A glottal action to check the issue of breath from the lungs, and a retained expansion of the chest, to prevent its undue pressure upon the lungs, must take place at the instant of separation of the articulating organs. The explosive effect of the letters will then be smartly produced, and with almost no expenditure of breath.

The common error opposed to this may serve to make the principle more intelligible. It consists in allowing the chest to fall, and in continuing the flow of breath after the separation. of the organs, as in the effort to make a prolonged H, thus:lip--h--, lit--h--, lick-h--, &c. The letters are by this fault deprived of their essential percussive quality, and the resources of the strongest lungs are drained most exhaustingly; and (in public speaking) to the great injury of pulmonary health.

This very faulty mechanism of these letters, is almost always found in cases of stammering; and, in a certain degree, it prevails among all speakers who complain of weak voices, or of exhaustion from vocal effort.

It may be asked, by what means this explosive effect can be produced, if the expiratory muscles, acting on the chest and diaphragm, are not to cause the ejection of air from the lungs ? The Divine Contriver of the wondrous mechanisms which compose the human frame, has not left us unprovided with a safe and effectual means of energetic utterance,-so often in His providence rendered necessary, but has furnished us with an explosive apparatus, subsidiary to that of the chest,-by whose action man can thunder forth His awful threatenings, or give inviting earnestness to His gracious invitations; without, in the performance of these duties, endangering pulmonary health, or, in any way, rendering the work of public expostulation insalubrious or painful. Those speakers who complain of weak and powerless articulation, and of pain after protracted or forcible efforts, are sufferers only from ignorance. An organ of power lies dormant within them, the want of whose natural action is painfully and ineffectively supplied by unnatural and debilitating efforts of the organs of respiration. This explosive apparatus is the Pharynx, a distensible muscular cavity situated at the back of the mouth; below which is the glottis, in front of it the mouth, and opening from it above, are the nares or nostrils. covers the upper pharyngeal openings, of expiration sends the breath into the obstructed in its passage, it will collect; and it should distend the pharynx to a greater or less extent, according to the degree of oral contraction or obstruction, and the force of expiratory pressure. When the oral obstruction is complete,-as in forming P, T, K, B, D, G,-the pharynx should so dilate with the momentary pressure of breath, that on the separation of the articulating organs, the natural contraction of the pharyngeal muscles should effect the percussive audibility of the letters.

When the soft palate the nares,-the effort mouth, where, if it be

When the lips are in firm contact, as for P, a sufficient pressure of breath must cause distension either of the cheeks, the lips, or the pharynx. Here, then, is an outward index by which any person may direct his own practice for the acquirement of pharyngeal power. Give all possible stress to the effort of

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