tives securing only one seat, which is yet in dispute. The Saskatchewan elections, held on December 13, were less decisive, but gave the Liberals substantial majorities.

THE SCHOOL QUESTION.

It is clearly evident, therefore, that the new provinces, which were represented in the east as bound and shackled, are not impressed with a grievance. The school system will be that which has been in vogue in the territories,-separate and public schools having the same standards, and alike under provincial supervision. The section for religious instruction applies to both, and provides that the last half-hour of the day may be devoted to this purpose, should the board of trustees so decide. No child, however, will be compelled to be present against the parents' wish. The conviction grows, much as national schools might be desired by many, and in Dominion rather than in provincial form by the writer, that the government has been true to the constitution, while the principles of the public school are in reality maintained in the west.

INDUSTRIAL GROWTH.

Industrially, 1905 has been a great year for Canada. The new transcontinental line called the Grand Trunk Pacific was formally launched. This enterprise was the subject of two long debates in successive parliaments, and now there can be but one opinion, that the undertaking will be of momentous import to the country. The west is growing by leaps and bounds, and present transportation is all too inadequate. The Grand Trunk Company, which has given splendid service in the older provinces, may be relied upon to push its vast project with speed and thoroughness, which when completed will be an incalculable factor in Canada's further development. Among the other industrial features of the year have been a greatly increasing immigration, harvests such as have never been, and work in nearly all departments of activity more than could be overtaken. more, the present industries give promise of good and better times for years to come.

SALARIES OF PUBLIC OFFICIALS.

And

So encouraged were the legislators with Canada's outlook that before parliament was prorogued a notable increase was made in their own and the judge's salaries. The prime minister's allowance was increased from $8,000 to $12,000. This has not been criticised, and it is reported that it was at his own request that the amount was not made $15,000. The salaries of the other ministers remain the same, but pro

vision is made by which they, and all ex-ministers who have given five years' service in the ministry, will be granted a retiring allowance of one-half the salary received while holding cabinet positions. This feature has been roundly censured, but that something should be done was again illustrated a few weeks ago, when the Hon. A. B. Aylesworth retired from a lucrative law practice, bringing him perhaps many times the salary which he will now receive as postmaster-general. The only alternative would be to make the salaries more adequate and dispense with the retiring allowance. A new departure was made in granting the leader of the opposition a regular allowance of $7,000, and this, too, has been loudly condemned, but it seems unfair that a man in this position, who must necessarily neglect his private business or profession, should not be remunerated for his public services. The increase of the sessional indemnity from $1,500 to $2,500 for members of parliament and Senators alike has also evoked a strong protest from different quarters, particularly with regard to the latter, and on the ground that in both houses there are those who do not give service for this amount. This may be true; but there are those who do give service, and in view of the increase, more faithful and regular service may be expected in time to come. Moreover, Canada, in her growing time, with an enormously increasing public business, should not fail in the generous acknowledgment of those who are faithful to her national affairs.

DENOMINATIONAL UNION.

In affairs of church the year 1905 will also be remembered. The writer contributed for the June REVIEW OF REVIEWs a sketch of the movement to unite Presbyterians, Methodists, and Congregationalists in Canada. The subsequent months have been fruitful in committee work, and now a general gathering is called, but too late in the year for report in this article. Since that time, too, the Baptists and the Free Baptists of the maritime provinces have joined their forces. The United Brethren have also voted to come with the Congregationalists if a basis can be agreed upon. A conference has just been held by a joint committee from both bodies, and a declaration made that union is possible. The Church of England, through its General Synod, placed a ban on the marriage of divorced people. The Congregationalists have been wonderfully successful in winding up a movement, started two and one-half years ago, for the discharge of their mortgage indebtedness. nearly all denominations has been felt a revival of a stronger and more liberal evangelism.

In

IN

N defense, as in other matters, a nation usually adapts itself to climatic and other natural conditions imposed upon it, taking advantage of these wherever possible, and training its soldiers accordingly. For example, the troops of Holland go through intricate maneuvers on skates; the French, Italian, and Swiss armies maintain battalions of Alpine infantry, who are both crack shots and expert mountaineers, provided with ropes, ice-axes, and alpenstocks; and the armies of Norway and Sweden have for ages been supplied with "ski" during the long Scandinavian winter.

As far back as the days of Magnus the Good, in the middle of the eleventh century, we hear how the Duke of Finmark, with his archers on ski, attacked and utterly defeated King Regner at his winter quarters in Bjarmeland,-a defeat which astounded the northern nations, who could not conceive how a snow-sliding rabble of bowmen could possibly vanquish trained soldiers who had overcome even the dreaded legions of imperial Rome.

The ski of Norway and Sweden are long slabs of wood ranging, according to fancy or require. ment, from 6 to 10 feet in length and from 2 to 4 inches in breadth. All are curved upward at the toe, and to a lesser extent at the heel. They are attached to the foot, generally a few

inches behind the center, with a toe-strap and some thongs. In former days each province,each district almost, had its own type of ski; but nowadays there is a tendency to adopt a universal pattern suitable for all requirements.

Nevertheless, for racing, Alpine climbing, and ski-jumping, a great sport in Norway nowadays, special kinds are always needed. Swedish and Norwegian ski are referred to by many writers as snowshoes; but while this conveys a fair idea of the use to which they are put, it is not correct. The snowshoe is employed for walking purposes, while the ski, as its name implies ("ski" in Norway, "skida" in Sweden, meaning something which slips or slides), is designed for sliding and gliding movements, and probably came originally from central Asia.

To this day the savage Tchukchis living on the shores of Bering Strait and the Sea of Okhotsk use an instrument for locomotion something between the snowshoe of the American Indian and the long ski used by the Lapps and the Finns.

It is clear that ski have been used for ages, and for practical purposes; but, at the same time, the peasants of Scandinavia have for centuries indulged in leaping and racing competitions, which in recent years were adopted by the people in and about Christiania. The ski-jumping

feats performed on the hill of Holmkollen, outside Christiania, are quite remarkable. The skiers slide down a slope at great speed, and then take a flying leap. The record was made three years ago with a jump of 134 feet.

Norway and Sweden, being preeminently "Lands of the Snows," it was but natural that the military authorities should turn their troops into ski-ers. For nearly two centuries the modern armies of Norway and Sweden, as distinguished from medieval forces, have maintained permanent regiments of troops mounted upon ski, and stationed for service in regions where their presence would be most useful. Certainly, the Norwegian ski-troops had every advantage against the Swedes in the fighting that marked the early part of last century.

The wonderful dexterity, the swift marches, and the holding of snowy positions thought to be impossible so impressed the powers of Europe in those days that, first, Germany, and then in turn Austria, Italy, and France, likewise mounted some of their Alpine troops on ski,— though, of course, not on the same scale as is

the case in Sweden and Norway. The armies of both these nations carry out extended maneuvers on ski during their long and very snowy winter.

Perhaps the most interesting occasion is the so-called "three days' maneuvers," which takes place annually in the neighborhood of Christiania. The troops proceed to a given rendezvous on ski, and encamp in some suitable spot. From here scouting parties are often sent out on a tendays' march across the wildest and least-frequented parts of the country, where the only living things met with are bears and wolves. This cross-country march would be absolutely impossible to ordinary infantry,-much less cavalry, no matter how light their equipment. Thus, it will be seen that an enemy not carefully equipped and trained in the use of ski would be utterly helpless in this country, and quite at the mercy of the native ski-mounted troops.

At the same time, it must not be supposed that this work is a picnic for Norwegian or Swedish troops; very far from it. In fact, they endure discomforts, and even meet with serious accidents, such as would altogether discourage

men from countries farther south. When mustered for the ski maneuvers, the men appear in heavy marching order, but, one is surprised to see, without overcoats; an Iceland shirt, a very thick, knitted woolen garment,-being provided instead. It is quite as warm as a great coat, and does not impede the men's movements.

Their underclothing is of great thickness, and they wear special ski socks, which keep their feet very warm. When on the march, a halt and rest of from ten to fifteen minutes is allowed each hour; for, as the men are supposed to make good speed even over loose and heavy snow, the march is found most arduous.

On arrival at their destination, the men are told off to cut poles, gather fir branches, scoop away the snow from the proposed site of the tents, and, finally, erect their temporary dwellings. The space being marked out by a noncommissioned officer, the snow is shoveled away to a certain depth, and the cavity filled in with a kind of flooring or carpet of spruce branches. Four long poles, fastened together at a fixed height, are then raised slantwise from each cor

ner, and these, with the exception of a space at the top, are completely covered with sheets of canvas laced together.

Inside the tent, suspended by wires from each pole, is slung a wire grating eighteen inches. above the ground, and on this the firewood is placed, so that ere long a merry blaze is started; and the swinging fire, fed with air from every direction, soon makes the tent interior warm and cozy, even though it may be zero weather outside.

The smoke escapes through the aperture at the top of the tent. In order to prevent any draught entering, and to increase the warmth of the interior, the deep snow is heaped up outside the tent and pressed against the sides.

Just before the icy, northern dawn the men are called forth with bugles, and it is well worth seeing when a whole regiment of men stoop to fasten on their ski. The thing is done in a moment, and the men lined up as if by magic waiting for orders. Sometimes, if the maneuvers are very near Christiania, one may see a large party of men suddenly shoulder their strange and apparently cumbersome footgear and march down to the palace over a hard road, on which it would not be possible to use the ski to advantage.

As is the case with the Alpine troops of Italy, France, and Switzerland, there are sham battles between the armies of the snows. A whole country-side may be attacked and defended, and often enough heavy field guns are brought into action, on which occasion deep tracks must be dug out of the snow to allow of the guns being placed in position. The gunners are directed in

action by an officer, who may be watching the operations almost up to his middle in snow.

Parties of sharpshooters go gliding here and there over the treacherous snow-crust; and the weird, unearthly-looking, silent landscape is suddenly torn, as it were, by the sharp volleying of musketry and the roar of field guns. It is an inspiring sight to see one side trying to maneuver for a better position than the enemy's, and the officers do not spare themselves, but work, if possible, even harder than the men.

One may often see a party of officers at lunch or dinner out in the open air in the deep snow,

seated on boxes, and with a packing-case for a table; while in the background their ski, upended in the snow, stick forth like a protective chevaux-de-frise. The soldiers are often under canvas for a fortnight at a time; but in the event of a winter campaign, they would, of course, have to go into regular winter quarters, for up in these northern latitudes the thermometer may often sink to fifty degrees below

zero.

The speed attained by the men on ski has often been exaggerated, no doubt owing to the rapidity with which a snow-slope can be descended. When the