"romain" dans les lois franques (1876), a critical study on a theory
of Fustel de Coulanges. In this he showed that the status of the
homo Romanus of the barbarian laws was inferior to that of the
German freeman; that the Gallo-Romans had been subjected
by the Germans to a state of servitude; and, consequently,
that the Germans had conquered the Gallo-Romans. He aimed
a further blow at Fustel's system by showing that the Frankish
kings had never borne the Roman title of vir inluster, and that
they could not therefore be considered as being in the first place
Roman magistrates; and that in the royal diplomas the king
issued his commands as rex Francorum and addressed his
functionaries as viri inlustres. His attention having been drawn
to questions of authenticity by the forgeries of Vrain Lucas, he
devoted himself to tracing the spurious documents that en-
cumbered and perverted Merovingian and Carolingian history.
In his A propos des découvertes de Jérome Vignier (1880), he
exposed the forgeries committed in the 17th century by this
priest. He then turned his attention to a group of documents
relating to ecclesiastical history in the Carolingian period and
bearing on the question of false decretals, and produced Les
Chartes de St-Calais (1887) and Les Actes de l'évêché du Mans
(1894). On the problems afforded by the chronology of Gerbert's
(Pope Silvester II.) letters and by the notes in cipher in the MS.
of his letters, he wrote L'Écriture secrète de Gerbert (1877), which
may be compared with his Notes tironiennes dans les diplômes
mérovingiens (1885). In 1889 he 'brought out an edition of
Gerbert's letters, which was a model of critical sagacity. Each
new work increased his reputation, in Germany as well as France.
At the Bibliothèque Nationale, where he obtained a post, he
rendered great service by his wide knowledge of foreign languages,
and read voraciously everything that related, however remotely,
to his favourite studies. He was finally appointed assistant
curator in the department of printed books. He died pre-
maturely at St Cloud on the 19th of August 1893.

HAVERSTRAW, a village of Rockland county, New York, | 1885). His first work in this province was Du sens du mot U.S.A., in a township of the same name, 32 m. N. of New York City, and finely situated on the W. shore of Haverstraw Bay, an enlargement of the Hudson river. Pop. of the village (1890), 5070; (1900) 5935, of whom 1231 were foreign-born and 568 were negroes;. (1905, state census) 6182; (1910) 5669; of the township (1910) 9335. Haverstraw is served by the West Shore, the New Jersey & New York (Erie), and the New York, Ontario, & Western railways, and is connected by steamboat lines with Peekskill and Newburgh. The village lies at the N. base of High Tor (832 ft.). It has a public library, founded by the King's Daughters' Society in 1895 and housed in the Fowler library building. Excellent clay is found in the township, and Haverstraw is one of the largest brick manufacturing centres in the world; brick-machines also are manufactured here. The Minesceongo creek furnishes water power for silk mills, dye works and print works. Haverstraw was settled by the Dutch probably as early as 1648. Near the village of Haverstraw (in the township of Stony Point), in the Joshua Hett Smith House, or "Old Treason House," as it is generally called, Benedict Arnold and Major André met before daylight on the 22nd of September 1780 to arrange plans for the betrayal of West Point. In 1826 a short-lived Owenite Community (of about 80 members) was established near West Haverstraw and Garnerville (in the township of Haverstraw). The members of the community established a Church of Reason, in which lectures were delivered on ethics, philosophy and science. Dissensions soon arose in the community, the experiment was abandoned within five months, and most of the members joined in turn the Coxsackie Community, also in New York, and the Kendal Community, near Canton, Ohio, both of which were also short-lived. The village of Haverstraw was originally known as Warren and was incorporated under that name in 1854; in 1873 it became officially the village of Haverstraw both names had previously been used locally. The village of West Haverstraw (pop. in 1890, 180; in 1900, 2079; and in 1910, 2369), also in Haverstraw township, was founded in 1830, was long known as Samsondale, and was incorporated under its present name in 1883.

See F. B. Green, History of Rockland County (New York, 1886). HAVET, EUGÈNE AUGUSTE ERNEST (1813-1889), French scholar, was born in Paris on the 11th of April 1813. Educated at the Lycée Saint-Louis and the Ecole Normale, he was for many years before his death on the 21st of December 1889 professor of Latin eloquence at the Collège de France. His two capital works were a commentary on the works of Pascal, Pensées de Pascal publiées dans leur texte authentique avec un commentaire suivi (1852; 2nd ed. 2 vols., 1881), and Le Christianisme et ses origines (4 vols., 1871-1884), the chief thesis of which was that Christianity owed more to Greek philosophy than to the writings of the Hebrew prophets. His elder son, Pierre Antoine Louis Havet (b. 1849), was professor of Latin philology at the Collège de France and a member of the Institute. The younger, Julien, is separately noticed.

HAVET, JULIEN (PIERRE EUGÈNE) (1853-1893), French historian, was born at Vitry-sur-Seine on the 4th of April 1853, the second son of Ernest Havet. He early showed a remarkable aptitude for learning, but had a pronounced aversion for pure rhetoric. His studies at the Ecole des Chartes (where he took first place both on entering and leaving) and at the Ecole des Hautes Etudes did much to develop his critical faculty, and the historical method taught and practised at these establishments brought home to him the dignity of history, which thenceforth became his ruling passion. His valedictory thesis at the École des Chartes, Série chronologique des gardiens et seigneurs des Îles Normandes (1876), was a definitive work and but slightly affected by later research. In 1878 he followed his thesis by a study called Les Cours royales dans les Îles Normandes. Both these works were composed entirely from the original documents at the Public Record Office, London, and the archives of Jersey and Guernsey. On the history of Merovingian institutions, Havet's conclusions were widely accepted (see La Formule N. rex Francor., v. inl.,

After his death his published and unpublished writings were collected and published (with the exception of Les Cours royales des Îles Normandes and Lettres de Gerbert) in two volumes called Questions mérovingiennes and Opuscules inédits (1896), containing, besides important papers on diplomatic and on Carolingian and Merovingian variety of subjects. A collection of his articles was published history, a large number of short monographs ranging over a great by his friends under the title of Mélanges Havel (1895), prefixed by a bibliography of his works compiled by his friend Henri (C. B.*)

Omont.

HAVRE, LE, a seaport of north-western France, in the department of Seine-Inférieure, on the north bank of the estuary of the Seine, 143 m. W.N.W. of Paris and 55 m. W. of Rouen by the Western railway. Pop. (1906), 129,403. The greater part of the town stands on the level strip of ground bordering the estuary, but on the N. rises an eminence, la Côte, covered by the gardens and villas of the richer quarter. The central point of the town is the Place de l'hôtel de ville in which are the public gardens. It is crossed by the Boulevard de Strasbourg, running from the sea on the west to the railway station and the barracks on the east. The rue de Paris, the busiest street, starts at the Grand Quai, overlooking the outer harbour, and, intersecting the Place Gambetta, runs north and enters the Place de l'hôtel de ville on its southern side. The docks start immediately to the east of this street and extend over a large area to the south and south-east of the town. Apart from the church of Notre-Dame, dating from the 16th and 17th centuries, the chief buildings of Havre, including the hôtel de ville, the law courts, and the exchange, are of modern erection. The museum contains a collection of antiquities and paintings. Havre is the seat of a sub-prefect, and forms part of the maritime arrondissement of Cherbourg. Among the public institutions are a tribunal of first instance, a tribunal of commerce, a board of trade arbitrators, a tribunal of maritime commerce, a chamber of commerce and a branch of the Bank of France. There are lycées for boys and girls, schools of commerce and other educational establishments. Havre, which is a fortified place of the second class, ranks second to Marseilles among French seaports. There are nine basins (the oldest of which

dates back to 1669) with an area of about 200 acres and more | follows: Hawaii, 4210; Maui, 728; Oahu, about 600; Kauai, than 8 m. of quays. They extend to the east of the outer 547; Molokai, 261; Lanai, 139; Niihau, 97; Kahoolawe, 69. harbour which on the west opens into the new outer harbour, All the islands are of volcanic origin, and have been built up by formed by two break waters converging from the land and leaving the eruptive process from a base about 15,000 ft. below the sea to a an entrance facing west. The chief docks (see Dock for plan) maximum height (Mauna Kea) on the largest island (Hawaii) of are the Bassin Bellot and the Bassin de l'Eure. In the latter 13.823 ft. above the sea; altogether there are forty volcanic peaks. Evidence of slight upheaval is occasionally afforded by an elevated the mail-steamers of the Compagnie Générale Transatlantique are coral-reef along the shore, and evidence of the subsidence of the S. berthed; and the Tantarville canal, by which river-boats unable portion of Oahu for several hundred feet has been discovered by to attempt the estuary of the Seine can make the port direct, artesian borings through coral-rock. In some instances, notably enters the harbour by this basin. There are, besides, several the high and nearly vertical wall along the N. shore of the E. half of Molokai, there is evidence of a fracture followed by the subrepairing docks and a petroleum dock for the use of vessels carrymergence of a portion of a volcano. With the exception of the coral ing that dangerous commodity. The port, which is an important and a small amount of calcareous sandstone, the rocks are entirely point of emigration, has regular steam-communication with volcanic and range from basalt to trachyte, but are mainly basalt, New York (by the vessels of the Compagnie Générale Trans- Cinder cones and tufa cones abound, but one of the most distinguishatlantique) and with many of the other chief ports of Europe, craters of the engulfment type, i.e. pit-craters which enlarge slowly ing features of the Hawaiian volcanoes is the great number of North, South and Central America, the West Indies and Africa. by the breaking off and falling in of their walls, and discharge vast Imports in 1907 reached a value of £57,686,000. The chief were lava-flows with comparatively little violence. The age of the several cotton, for which Havre is the great French market, coffee, inhabited islands, or at least the time since the last eruptions on copper and other metals, cacao, cotton goods, rubber, skins and them, decreases from W. to E., and on the most easterly (Hawaii) volcanic forces are still in operation. That those to the westward hides, silk goods, dye-woods, tobacco, oil-seeds, coal, cereals and have long been inactive is shown by the destruction of craters by wool. In the same year exports were valued at £47,130,000, the denudation, by deep ravines, valleys and tall cliffs eroded on the most important being cotton, silk and woollen goods, coffee, hides, mountain sides, especially on the windward side, by the depth of soil formed from the disintegrated rocks, and by the amount as well leather, wine and spirits, rubber, tools and metal ware, earthenas variety of vegetable life. ware and glass, clothes and millinery, cacao and fancy goods. In 1907 the total tonnage of shipping (with cargoes) reached its highest point, viz. 5,671,975 tons (4018 vessels) compared with 3,816,340 tons (3832 vessels) in 1898. Forty-two per cent of this shipping sailed under the British flag. France and Germany were Great Britain's most serious rivals. Havre possesses oil works, soap works, saw mills, flour mills, works for extracting dyes and tannin from dye-woods, an important tobacco manufactory, chemical works and rope works. It also has metallurgical and engineering works which construct commercial and war-vessels of every kind as well as engines and machinery, cables, boilers, &c.

Until 1516 Havre was only a fishing village possessing a chapel dedicated to Notre-Dame de Grâce, to which it owes the name, Havre (harbour) de Grâce, given to it by Francis I. when he began the construction of its harbour. The town in 1562 was delivered over to the keeping of Queen Elizabeth by Louis I., prince de Condé, leader of the Huguenots, and the command of it was entrusted to Ambrose Dudley, earl of Warwick; but the English were expelled in 1563, after a most obstinate siege, which was pressed forward by Charles IX. and his mother, Catherine de' Medici, in person. The defences of the town and the harbour-works were continued by Richelieu and completed by Vauban. In 1694 it was vainly besieged by the English, who also bombarded it in 1759, 1794 and 1795. It was a port of considerable importance as early as 1572, and despatched vessels to the whale and cod-fishing at Spitsbergen and Newfoundland. In 1672 it became the entrepôt of the French East India Company, and afterwards of the Senegal and Guinea companies. Napoleon I. raised it to a war harbour of the first rank, and under Napoleon III. works begun by Louis XVI. were completed.

See A. E. Borely, Histoire de la ville du Havre (Le Havre, 18801881). HAWAII (HAWAIIAN or SANDWICH ISLANDS), a Territory of the United States of America, consisting of a chain of islands in the North Pacific Ocean, eight inhabited and several uninhabited. The inhabited islands lie between latitudes 18° 54' and 22° 15′ N., and between longitudes 154° 50′ and 160° 30' W., and extend about 380 m. from E.S.E. to W.N.W.; the uninhabited ones, mere rocks and reefs, valuable only for their guano deposits and shark-fishing grounds, continue the chain several hundred miles farther W.N.W. From Honolulu, the capital, which is about 100 m. N.W. of the middle of the inhabited group, the distance to San Francisco is about 2100 m.; to Auckland, New Zealand, about 3810 m.; to Sydney, New South Wales, about 4410 m.; to Yokohama, about 3400 m.; to Hong-Kong, about 4920 m.; to Manila, about 4890 m. The total area of the inhabited islands is 6651 sq. m., distributed as

Hawaii Island, from which the group and later the Territory was named, has the shape of a rude triangle with sides of 90 m., 75 m. and 65 m. Its coast, unlike that of the other islands of the archipelago, has few coral reefs. Its surface consists mainly of the gentle slopes of five volcanic mountains which have encroached much upon one another by their eruptions.

Mauna Loa (" Great Mountain "), on the S., is by far the largest volcano in the world; from a base measuring at sea-level about 75 m. from N. to S. and 50 m. from E. to W., it rises gradually to a height of 13,675 ft. On its E.S.E. side, at an elevation of 4000 ft. above the sea (300 ft. above the adjoining plain on the W.) is Kilauea, from whose lava-flows the island has been extended to form its S.E. angle. To the N.N.E. of Mauna Loa, and blending with it in an intervening plateau, is Mauna Kea ("White Mountain," so named from the snow on its summit), with a much smaller base but with steeper slopes and a crowning cinder cone 13,823 ft. above the sea, the maximum height in the Pacific Ocean; blending with Mauna Loa on the N.N.W. is Mauna Hualalai, 8269 ft. in height; and rising abruptly from the extreme N.W. shore are the remains of the oldest On the land side the Kohala Mountains have been covered with lava mountains of the island, the Kohala, with a summit 5505 ft. in height. from Mauna Kea, and form the broad plains of Kohala, having a maximum elevation of about 3000 ft.; on the ocean side, wherever this lava has not extended, erosion has gone on until bluffs 1000 ft. Waimanu, with nearly perpendicular walls as much as 3000 ft. in height face the sea and the enormous gorges of Waipio and high and extending inland 5-6 m., have been formed. Mauna Kea is not nearly so old as the Kohala Mountains, but there is no record of its eruption, nor have its lavas a modern aspect. The last eruption of Mauna Hualalai was in 1801. Mauna Loa and Kilauca are still active. Cinder cones are the predominant type of craters on both Mauna Kea and the Kohala Mountains, and they are also numerous on the upper slopes of Mauna Hualalai; but the more typically Hawaiian pit or engulfment craters also abound on Mauna Hualalai Kilauea, to the S.E. of it, are prominent representatives of this type. and Mokuaweoweo, crowning the summit of Mauna Loa, as well as Kilauea is the largest active crater in the world (8 m. in circumference) and is easily accessible. Enclosed by a circular wall from 200 to 700 ft. in height is a black and slightly undulating plain having an area of 4-14 sq. m., and within this plain is a pit, Halemaumau, of varying area (about 2000 ft. in diameter in 1905), now full of boiling lava, now empty to a depth of perhaps 1000 ft. When most active, Halemaumau affords a grand spectacle, especially at night: across the crust run glowing cracks, the crust is then broken into cakes, the cakes plunge beneath, lakes of liquid lava are formed, surface again solidifies and the process is repeated. According to over whose surface play fire-fountains 10 to 50 ft. in height, the an account of the natives, a violent eruption of Kilauea occurred in 1789, or about that time, and deposits of volcanic sand, large stones, sponge-like scoria (pumice) and ashes for miles around are evidence American missionaries first made the volcano known to the civilized of such an eruption. Since the Rev. William Ellis and a party of

Among the minor phenomena of Hawaiian volcanoes are the delicate glassy fibres called Pele's hair by the Hawaiians, which are spun by the wind from the rising and falling drops of liquid lava, and blown over the edge or into the crevices of the crater. Pele in idolatrous times was the dreaded goddess of Kilauea.

160 155 Longitude West 158° of Greenwich world in 1823, the eruptions have consisted mainly in the quiet | discharge of lava through a subterranean passage into the sea. In the eruptions of 1823, 1832, 1840 and 1868 the floor of the crater rose on the eve of an eruption and then sank, sometimes hundreds of feet, with the discharge of lava; but since 1868 (in 1879, 1886, 1891, 1894 and 1907; and once, before 1868, in 1855) this action has been confined to Halemaumau and such other pits as at the time existed.

Mokuawcoweo, on the flat top of Mauna Loa, is a pit crater with a floor 3-7 sq. m. in area and sunk 500-600 ft. within walls that are almost vertical and that measure 9.47 m. in circumference. Formerly, on the eve of a great eruption of Mauna Loa, this crater often spouted forth great columns of flame and emitted clouds of vapour, but in modern times this action has usually been followed by a fracture of the mountain side from the summit down to a point 1000 ft. or more below where the lava was discharged in great streams, the action at the summit diminishing or wholly ceasing when this discharge began. The first recorded eruption of Mauna Loa was in 1832; since then there have been eruptions in 1851, 1852, 1855, 1859. 1868, 1880-1881, 1887, 1896, 1899 and 1907. The eruptions of 1868, 1887 and 1907 were attended by earthquakes; in 1868 huge sea waves, 40 ft. in height, were raised, and, as they broke on the S. shore, they destroyed the villages of Punaluu, Ninole, Kawaa and Honuapo. But the eruptions of Mauna Loa have consisted mainly in the quiet discharge of enormous flows of lava: in 1859 the lava-stream, which began to run on the 23rd of January, flowed N.W., reached the sea, 33 m. distant, eight days later, and continued to flow into it until the 25th of November; and the average length of the flows from seven other eruptions is nearly 14 m. The surface of the upper slopes of Mauna Loa is almost wholly of two widely different kinds of barren lava-flows, called by the Hawaiians the pahoehoe and the aa. The pahoehoe has a smooth but billowy or hummocky surface, and is marked by lines which show that it cooled as it flowed. The aa is lava broken into fragments having sharp and jagged edges. As the same stream sometimes changes abruptly from one kind to the other, the two kinds must be due to different conditions affecting the flow, and among the conditions which may cause a stream to break up into the ad have been mentioned the greater depth of the stream, a sluggish current, impediments in its course just as it is granulating, and, what is more probable, subterranean moisture which causes it to cool from below upward instead of from above downward as in the pahoehoe. The natives are in the habit of making holes in the aa, and planting in them banana shoots or sweet-potato cuttings, and though the holes are simply filled with stones or fern leaves, the

plants grow and in due time are productive. Another curious feature of Mauna Loa, and to some extent of other Hawaiian volcanoes, is the great number of caves, some of them as much as 60 to 80 ft. in height and several miles in length; they were produced by the escape of lava over which a crust had formed. In the midst of barren wastes to the $.E. and S.W. of Kilauca are small channels with steam cracks, along which appears the only vegetation of the region.

Maui, lying 26 m. N.W. of Hawaii, is composed of two mountains connected by an isthmus, Wailuku, 7 or 8 m. long, about 6 m. across, and about 160 ft. above the sca in its highest part.

Mauna Haleakala, on the E. peninsula, has a height of 10,032 ft., and forms a great dome-like mass, with a circumference at the base of 90 m. and regular slopes of only 8° or 9°. It has numerous cinder cores on its S.W. slope, is well wooded on the N. and E. slopes, and has on its summit an extinct pit-crater which is one of the largest in the world. This crater is 7-48 m. long, 2.37 m. wide, and covers 19 sq. m.; the circuit of its walls, which are composed of a hard grey clinkstone much fissured, is 20 m.; its greatest depth is 2720 ft. At opposite ends are breaks in the walls a mile or more in width-one about 1000 ft., the other at least 3000 ft. in depththrough which poured the lava of probably the last great eruption. From the floor of the crater rise sixteen well-preserved cinder-cones, which range from more than 400 ft. to 900 ft. in height. Along the N. base of the mountain are numerous ravines (several hundred feet deep), to the bottom of which small streams of water fall in long cascades, but elsewhere on the castern mountain there is little crosion or other mark of age. That the mountainous mass of western Maui is much older is shown by the destruction of its crater, by its sharp ridges and by deeply eroded gorges or valleys. Its highest peak, Puu Kukui, rises 5788 ft. above the sea, and directly under this is the head of lao Valley, 5 m. long and 2 m. wide, which has been cut in the mountain to a depth of 4000 ft. This and the smaller valleys are noted for the beauty of their tropical scenery.

Kahoolawe is a small island 6 m. S.W. of Maui. It is 14 m. long by 6 m. wide. Its mountains, which rise to a height of 1472 ft., are rugged and nearly destitute of verdure, but the intervening valleys afford pasturage for sheep.

Lanai is another small island, 7 m. W. of Maui, about 18 m. long and 12 m. wide. It has a mountain range which rises to a

.

snakes. Land-snails, mostly Achatinellidae, are remarkably frequent and diverse; over 300 varieties exist. Insects are numerous, and of about 500 species of beetle some 80% are not known to exist elsewhere; cockroaches and green locusts are pests, as are, also, mosquitoes, wasps, scorpions, centipedes and white ants, which have all been introduced from elsewhere.

them, particularly the hilo grass (Paspalum conjugatum), which forms a dense mat over the ground, prevent the spread of forests. The pili grass (Heteropogon contortus) is also noxious, for its awns get badly entangled in the wool of sheep. The native manienie (Stenotaphrum americanum) and kukai (Panicum pruriens), however, are relished by stock and are found on all the inhabited islands; the Bermuda grass (Cynodon dactylon), a June grass (Poa annua), and Guinea grass Panicum jumentorum) have also been successfully introduced. The Paspalum orbiculare is the large swamp grass with which the natives covered their houses. On the island of Niihau is a fine grass (Cyperus laevigatus), out of which the beautiful Niihau mats were formerly made; it is used in making Panama hats. Mats were also made of the leaves of the hala tree (Pandanus odoratissimus). The wauke plant (Broussonetia papyrifera), and to a less extent the mamake (Pipturus albidus) and Boehmeria stipularis, furnished the bark out of which the famous kapa cloth was made, while the olopa (Cheirodendron gaudichaudii) and the koolea (Myrsine lessertiana) furnished the dyes with which it was coloured. From several species of Cibotium is obtained a glossy yellowish wool, used for making pillows and mattresses. Ferns, of which there are about 130 species varying from a few inches to 30 ft. in height, form a luxuriant undergrowth in the ohia-lehua and the koa forests, and the islands are noted for the profusion and beautiful colours of their flowering plants. Kalo (Colocasia antiquorum, var., esculenta), which furnishes the principal food of the natives, and sugar cane (Saccharum officinarum), the cultivation of which has become the chief industry of the islands, were introduced before the discovery of the group by Captain Cook in 1778. Sisal hemp has been introduced, and there is a large plantation of it W. of Honolulu. Over seventy varieties of seaweeds, growing in the fresh-water pools and in the waters near the coast, are used by the natives as food. These limus, as they are called by the Kanakas, are washed, salted, broken and eaten as a relish or as a flavouring for fish or other meat. The culture of such algae may prove of economic importance; gelatine, glue and agar-agar would be valuable by-products. Fauna.-A day-flying bat, whales and dolphins are about the only indigenous mammals; hogs, dogs and rats had been introduced before Cook's discovery. Fish in an interesting variety of colours and shapes abound in the sea and in artificial ponds along the coasts.1 There are some fine species of birds, and the native avifauna is so distinctive that Wallace argued from it that the Hawaiian Archi-improvement. In 1909 the area of the public land was about pelago had long been separated from any other land. There were native names for 89 varieties. The most typical family is the Drepanidae, so named for the stout sickle-shaped beak with which the birds extract insects from heavy-barked trees; Gadow considers the family American in its origin, and thinks that the Moho, a family of honey-suckers, were later comers and from Australia. The mamo (Drepanis pacifica) has large golden feathers on its back; it is now very rare, and is seldom found except on Mauna Loa, Hawaii, about 4000 ft. above the sea. The smaller yellow feathers, once used for the war cloaks of the native chiefs, were furnished by the oo (Moho nobilis) and the aa (Moho braccatus), now found only occasionally in the valleys of Kauai near Hanalei, on the N. side of the island; scarlet feathers for similar mantles were taken from the iwi (Vestiaria coccinea), a black-bodied, scarlet-winged song-bird, which feeds on nectar and on insects found in the bark of the koa and ohia trees, and from the Fringilla coccinea. In the old times birds were protected by the native belief that divine messages were conveyed by bird cries, and by royal edict forbidding the killing of species furnishing the material for feather cloaks, contributions towards which were long almost the only taxes paid. Thus the downfall of the monarchy and of the ancient cults have been nearly fatal to some of the more beautiful birds; feather ornaments, formerly worn only by nobles, came to be a common decoration; and many species (for example the Hawaiian gallinule, Gallinula sandwicensis, which, because of its crimson frontal plate and bill, was said by the natives to have played the part of Prometheus, burning its head with fire stolen from the gods and bestowed on mortals) have been nearly destroyed by the mongoose, or have been driven from their lowland homes to the mountains, such being the fate of the mamo, mentioned above, and of the Sandwich Island goose (Bernicla sandwicensis), which is here a remarkable example of adaptation, as its present habitat is quite arid. This goose has been introduced successfully into Europe. A bird called moho, but actually of a different family, was the Pennula ecaudata or millsi, which had hardly any tail, and had wings so degenerate that it was commonly thought wingless. The turnstone (Strepsilas interpres) arrives in the islands in August after breeding in Alaska. There are no parrots. The only reptiles are three species of skinks and four of the gecko; the islands are famed for their freedom from

1 Partly described by T. S. Streets, Contributions to the Natural History of the Hawaiian and Fanning Islands, Bulletin 7 of U.S. National Museum (Washington, 1877). Several new species are described in U.S. Bureau of Fisheries Document, No. 623 (Washington, 1907).

So Lesson called the family from the native name in 1831; Cabanis (1847) suggested Acrulocercus.

Soil.-The soil of the Territory is almost wholly a decomposition of lava, and in general differs much from the soils of the United States, particularly in the large amount of nitrogen (often more than 1.25% in cane and coffee soil, and occasionally 2.2%) and iron, and in the high degree of acidity. High up on the windward side of a mountain it is thin, light red or yellow, and of inferior quality. Low down on the leeward side it is dark red and fertile, but still too pervious to retain moisture well. In the older valleys on the islands of Kauai, Oahu and Maui, as well as on the lowland plain of Molokai, the soil is deeper and usually, too, the moisture is retained by a heavy clay. In some places along the coast there is a narrow strip of decomposed coral limestone; often, too, a coral reef has served to catch the sediment washed down the mountain side until a deep sedimentary soil has been deposited. On the still lower levels the soil is deepest and most productive. Agriculture. The tenure by which lands were held before 1838 was strictly feudal, resembling that of Germany in the 11th century, and lands were sometimes enfcoffed to the seventh degree. But in the "Great Division" which took place in 1848 and forms the foundation of present land titles, about 984,000 acres, nearly onefourth of the inhabited area, were set apart for the crown, about 1,495,000 acres for the government, and about 1,619,000 acres for the several chiefs; and the common people received fee-simple titles for their house lots and the pieces of land which they culti vated for themselves, about 28,600 acres, almost entirely in isolated patches of irregular shape hemmed in by the holdings of the crown, the government or the great chiefs. Generally the chiefs ran into debt; many died without heirs; and their lands passed largely into the hands of foreigners. At the abolition of the monarchy in 1893, the crown domains were declared to be public lands, and, with the other government lands, were by the terms of annexation turned over to the United States in 1898. They had been offered for sale or lease in accordance with land acts (of 1884 and 1895-the latter corresponding generally to the land laws of New Zealand) designed to promote division into small farms and their immediate 1,700,000 acres. In 1900 there were in the Territory 2273 farms, of which 1209 contained less than 10 acres, 785 contained between 10 and 100 acres, and 116 contained 1000 acres or more. The natives seldom cultivate more than half an acre apiece, and the Portuguese settlers usually only 25 or 30 acres at most. Of the total area of the Territory only 86,854 acres, or 2.77%, were under cultivation in 1900, and of this 65,687 acres, or 75.6%, were divided into 170 farms and planted to sugar-cane. In 1909 it was estimated that 213,000 acres (about half of which was irrigated) were planted to sugar, one half being cropped each year. The average yield per acre of cane-sugar is the greatest in the world, 30 to 40 tons of cane being an average per acre, and as much as 10 tons of sugar having been produced from a single acre under irrigation. The cultivation of the cane was greatly encouraged by the Reciprocity Treaty of 1875, which established practically free trade between the islands and the United States, and since 1879 it has been widely extended by means of irrigation, the water being obtained both by pumping from numerous artesian wells and by conducting surface water through canals and ditches. The sugar farms are mostly on the islands of Hawaii, Oahu, Maui and Kauai, at the bases of mountains; those on the leeward side have the better soil, but require much more irrigating. The product increased from 26,072,429 b in 1876 to 259.789.462 6 in 1890, 542,098,500 lb in 1899 and about 1,060,000,000 lb (valued at more than $40,000,000) in 1909. Nearly all of it is exported to the United States. Rice was the second product in importance until competition with Japan, Louisiana and Texas made the crop a poor investment; improved culture and machinery may restore rice culture to its former importance. It is grown almost wholly by Japanese and Chinese on small low farms along the coasts, mostly on the islands of Kauai and Oahu. In 1899 the product amounted to 33,442,400 fb; in 1907 about 12,000 acres were planted, and the crop was estimated to be worth $2,500,000. Coffee of good quality is grown at elevations ranging between 1000 to 3000 ft. above the sea; the Hawaiian product is called Kona coffee-from Kona, a district of the S. side of Hawaii island, where much of it is grown. In 1909 about 4500 acres were in coffee, the value of the crop was $350,000; and 1,763,119 lb of coffee, valued at $211,535, were exported from Hawaii to the mainland of the United States. A few bananas and (especially from Oahu) pineapples of fine quality are exported; since 1901 the canning of

The entomological department of the Hawaii Experiment Station undertakes" mosquito control," and in 1905-1906 imported top-minnows (Poeciliidae) to destroy mosquito larvae.

These and other title-holders received corresponding rights to the use of Irrigation ditches, and to fish in certain sea areas adjacent to their holdings.