union (Zollverein), he acted in 1851 as one of its commissioners | literature; and in 1842 he was transferred to Göttingen to the at the great industrial exhibition at London, and published chair of philology and archaeology, vacant by the death of an elaborate report on the woollen goods. Three years later | Otfried Müller. He died at Göttingen on the 31st of December he was president of the committee of judges at the similar 1855. His knowledge of all branches of classical learning was exhibition at Munich, and the report of its proceedings was profound, but he was chiefly distinguished for his works on Greek drawn up by him. In 1855 he became councillor of state, the antiquities and ancient philosophy. Among these may be highest honour in the service. From 1835 to 1847 he contributed mentioned the Lehrbuch der griechischen Antiquitäten (new ed., a long series of reviews, mainly of works on economical subjects, 1889) dealing with political, religious and domestic antiquities; to the Münchener gelehrte Anzeigen and also wrote for Rau's the Geschichte und System der Platonischen Philosophie (1839), Archiv der politischen Ökonomie and the Augsburger allgemeine unfinished; an edition of the Platonic Dialogues (6 vols., 1851Zeitung. As head of the bureau of statistics he published a 1853); and Culturgeschichte der Griechen und Römer (1857series of valuable annual reports (Beiträge zur Statistik des 1858), published after his death by C. G. Schmidt. He also Königreichs Bayern, Hefte 1-17, 1850-1867). He was engaged edited the text of Juvenal and Persius (1854) and Lucian's at the time of his death, on the 23rd of November 1868, upon De conscribenda historia (1828). A collection of Abhandlungen a second edition of his Staatswirthschaftliche Untersuchungen, und Beiträge appeared in 1849. which was published in 1870.

Hermann's rare technological knowledge gave him a great advantage in dealing with some economic questions. He reviewed the principal fundamental ideas of the science with great thoroughness and acuteness. "His strength," says Roscher, "lies in his clear, sharp, exhaustive distinction between the several elements of a complex conception, or the several steps comprehended in a complex act." For keen analytical power his German brethren compare him with Ricardo. But he avoids several one-sided views of the English economist. Thus he places public spirit beside egoism as an economic motor, regards price as not measured by labour only but as a product of several factors, and habitually contemplates the consumption of the labourer, not as a part of the cost of production to the capitalist, but as the main practical end of economics.

See Kautz, Gesch. Entwicklung d. National-Ökonomik, pp. 633-638; Roscher, Gesch. d. Nat.-Ökon. in Deutschland, pp. 860-879.

See M. Lechner, Zur Erinnerung an K. F. Hermann (1864), and article by C. Halm in Allgemeine deutsche Biographie, xii. (1880). HERMAPHRODITUS, in Greek mythology, a being, partly male, partly female, originally worshipped as a divinity. The conception undoubtedly had its origin in the East, where deities of a similar dual nature frequently occur. The oldest traces of the cult in Greck countries are found in Cyprus. Here, according to Macrobius (Saturnalia, iii. 8) there was a bearded statue of a male aphrodite, called Aphroditos by Aristophanes (probably in his Nioßos, a similar variant). Philochorus in his Atthis (ap. Macrobius loc. cit.) further identified this divinity, at whose sacrifices men and women exchanged garments, with the moon. This double sex also attributed to Dionysus and Priapus-the union in one being of the two principles of generation and conception-denotes extensive fertilizing and productive powers. This Cyprian Aphrodite is the same as the later Hermaphroditos, which simply means Aphroditos in the form of a herm (see HERMAE), and first occurs in the Characteres (16) of Theophrastus. After its introduction at Athens (probably in the 5th century B.C.), the importance of this being seems to have declined. It appears no longer as the object of a special cult, but limited to the homage of certain sects, expressed by superstitious rites of obscure significance. The still later form of the legend, a product of the Hellenistic period, is due to a mistaken etymology of the name. In accordance with this, Hermaphroditus is the son of Hermes and Aphrodite, of whom the nymph of the fountain of Salmacis in Caria became enamoured while he was bathing. When her overtures were rejected, she embraced him and entreated the gods that she might be for ever united with him. The result was the formation of a being, half man, half woman. This story is told by Ovid (Metam. iv, 285) to explain the peculiarly enervat

HERMANN, JOHANN GOTTFRIED JAKOB (1772-1848), German classical scholar and philologist, was born at Leipzig on the 28th of November 1772. Entering the university of his native city at the age of fourteen, Hermann at first studied law, which he soon abandoned for the classics. After a session at Jena in 1793-1794, he became a lecturer on classical literature in Leipzig, in 1798 professor extraordinarius of philosophy in the university, and in 1803 professor of eloquence (and poetry, 1809). | He died on the 31st of December 1848. Hermann maintained that an accurate knowledge of the Greek and Latin languages was the only road to a clear understanding of the intellectual life of the ancient world, and the chief, if not the only, aim of philology. As the leader of this grammatico-critical school, he came into collision with A. Böckh and Otfried Müller, the representatives of the historico-antiquarian school, which regarded Hermann's viewing qualities of the water of the fountain. Strabo (xiv. p. 656) of philology as inadequate and one-sided.

Hermann devoted his early attention to the classical poetical metres, and published several works on that subject, the most important being Elementa doctrinae metricac (1816), in which he set forth a scientific theory based on the Kantian categories. His writings on Greek grammar are also valuable, especially De emendanda ratione Graecae grammaticae (1801), and notes and excursus on Viger's treatise on Greek idioms. His editions of the classics include several of the plays of Euripides; the Clouds of Aristophanes (1799); Trinummus of Plautus (1800); Poëtica of Aristotle (1802); Orphica (1805); the Homeric Hymns (1806); and the Lexicon of Photius (1808). In 1825 Hermann finished the edition of Sophocles begun by Erfurdt. His edition of Aeschylus was published after his death in 1852. The Opuscula, a collection of his smaller writings in Latin, appeared in seven volumes between 1827 and 1839.

See monographs by O. Jahn (1849) and H. Köchly (1874): C. Bursian, Geschichte der klassischen Philologie in Deutschland (1883); art, in Allgem, deutsche Biog.; Sandys, Hist. Class. Schol. iii.

HERMANN, KARL FRIEDRICH (1804-1855), German classical scholar and antiquary, was born on the 4th of August 1804, at Frankfort-on-Main. Having studied at the universities of Heidelberg and Leipzig, he went for a tour in Italy, on his return from which he lectured as Privatdozent in Heidelberg. In 1832 he was called to Marburg as professor ordinarius of classical

attributes its bad reputation to the attempt of the inhabitants of the country to find some excuse for the demoralization caused by their own luxurious and effeminate habits of life. There was a famous statue of Hermaphroditus by Polycles of Athens, probably the younger of the two statuaries of that name. In later Greek art he was a favourite subject.

See articles in Daremberg and Saglio, Dictionnaire des antiquités, and Roscher's Lexikon der Mythologie; and for art, A. Baumeister, Denkmaler des klassischen Altertums (1884-1888).

HERMAS, SHEPHERD OF, one of the works representing the Apostolic Fathers (q.v.), a hortatory writing which "holds the mirror up to the Church in Rome during the 3rd Christian generation. This is the period indicated by the evidence of the Muratorian Canon, which assigns it to the brother of Pius, Roman bishop c. 139-154. Probably it was not the fruit of a single effort of its author. Rather its contents came to him piecemeal and at various stages in his ministry as a Christian 'prophet," extending over a period of years; and, like certain Old Testament prophets, he shows us how by his own experiences he became the medium of a divine message to his church and to God's "elect" people at large.

In its present form it falls under three heads: Visions, Mandates, Similitudes. But these divisions are misleading. The personal and preliminary revelation embodied in Vision i. brings the prophet a new sense of sin as essentially a matter of the heart,

union (Zollverein), he acted in 1851 as one of its commissioners | literature; and in 1842 he was transferred to Göttingen to the at the great industrial exhibition at London, and published an elaborate report on the woollen goods. Three years later he was president of the committee of judges at the similar exhibition at Munich, and the report of its proceedings was drawn up by him. In 1855 he became councillor of state, the highest honour in the service. From 1835 to 1847 he contributed a long series of reviews, mainly of works on economical subjects, to the Münchener gelehrte Anzeigen and also wrote for Rau's Archiv der politischen Ökonomie and the Augsburger allgemeine Zeitung. As head of the bureau of statistics he published a series of valuable annual reports (Beiträge zur Statistik des Königreichs Bayern, Hefte 1-17, 1850-1867). He was engaged at the time of his death, on the 23rd of November 1868, upon a second edition of his Staatswirthschaftliche Untersuchungen, which was published in 1870.

Hermann's rare technological knowledge gave him a great advantage in dealing with some economic questions. He reviewed the principal fundamental ideas of the science with great thoroughness and acuteness. "His strength," says Roscher, "lies in his clear, sharp, exhaustive distinction between the several elements of a complex conception, or the several steps comprehended in a complex act." For keen analytical power his German brethren compare him with Ricardo. But he avoids several one-sided views of the English economist. Thus he places public spirit beside egoism as an economic motor, regards price as not measured by labour only but as a product of several factors, and habitually contemplates the consumption of the labourer, not as a part of the cost of production to the capitalist, but as the main practical end of economics.

See Kautz, Gesch. Entwicklung d. National-Ökonomik, pp. 633-638; Roscher, Gesch. d. Nat.-Okon. in Deutschland, pp. 860-879,

chair of philology and archaeology, vacant by the death of Otfried Müller. He died at Göttingen on the 31st of December 1855. His knowledge of all branches of classical learning was profound, but he was chiefly distinguished for his works on Greek antiquities and ancient philosophy. Among these may be mentioned the Lehrbuch der griechischen Antiquitaten (new ed., 1889) dealing with political, religious and domestic antiquities; the Geschichte und System der Platonischen Philosophie (1839), unfinished; an edition of the Platonic Dialogues (6 vols., 18511853); and Culturgeschichte der Griechen und Römer (18571858), published after his death by C. G. Schmidt. He also edited the text of Juvenal and Persius (1854) and Lucian's De conscribenda historia (1828). A collection of Abhandlungen und Beiträge appeared in 1849.

See M. Lechner, Zur Erinnerung an K. F. Hermann (1864), and article by C. Halm in Allgemeine deutsche Biographie, xii. (1880). HERMAPHRODITUS, in Greck mythology, a being, partly male, partly female, originally worshipped as a divinity. The conception undoubtedly had its origin in the East, where deities of a similar dual nature frequently occur. The oldest traces of the cult in Greek countries are found in Cyprus. Here, according to Macrobius (Saturnalia, iii. 8) there was a bearded statue of a male aphrodite, called Aphroditos by Aristophanes (probably in his Nioßos, a similar variant). Philochorus in his Atthis (ap. Macrobius loc. cit.) further identified this divinity, at whose sacrifices men and women exchanged garments, with the moon. This double sex also attributed to Dionysus and Priapus-the union in one being of the two principles of generation and conception-denotes extensive fertilizing and productive powers. | This Cyprian Aphrodite is the same as the later Hermaphroditos, which simply means Aphroditos in the form of a herm (see HERMAE), and first occurs in the Characteres (16) of Theophrastus. After its introduction at Athens (probably in the 5th century B.C.), the importance of this being seems to have declined. It appears no longer as the object of a special cult, but limited to the homage of certain sects, expressed by superstitious rites of obscure significance. The still later form of the legend, a product of the Hellenistic period, is due to a mistaken etymology of the name. In accordance with this, Hermaphroditus is the son of Hermes and Aphrodite, of whom the nymph of the fountain of Salmacis in Caria became enamoured while he was bathing. When her overtures were rejected, she embraced him and entreated the gods that she might be for ever united with him. The result was the formation of a being, half man, half woman. This story is told by Ovid (Metam. iv. 285) to explain the peculiarly enervat

HERMANN, JOHANN GOTTFRIED JAKOB (1772-1848), German classical scholar and philologist, was born at Leipzig on the 28th of November 1772. Entering the university of his native city at the age of fourteen, Hermann at first studied law, which he soon abandoned for the classics. After a session at Jena in 1793-1794, he became a lecturer on classical literature in Leipzig, in 1798 professor extraordinarius of philosophy in the university, and in 1803 professor of eloquence (and poetry, 1809). He died on the 31st of December 1848. Hermann maintained that an accurate knowledge of the Greek and Latin languages was the only road to a clear understanding of the intellectual life of the ancient world, and the chief, if not the only, aim of philology. As the leader of this grammatico-critical school, he came into collision with A. Böckh and Otfried Müller, the representatives of the historico-antiquarian school, which regarded Hermann's viewing qualities of the water of the fountain. Strabo (xiv. p. 656) of philology as inadequate and one-sided.

Hermann devoted his early attention to the classical poetical metres, and published several works on that subject, the most important being Elementa doctrinae metricac (1816), in which he set forth a scientific theory based on the Kantian categories. His writings on Greek grammar are also valuable, especially De emendanda ratione Graecae grammaticae (1801), and notes and excursus on Viger's treatise on Greek idioms. His editions of the classics include several of the plays of Euripides; the Clouds of Aristophanes (1799); Trinummus of Plautus (1800); Poëtica of Aristotle (1802); Orphica (1805); the Homeric Hymns (1806); and the Lexicon of Photius (1808). In 1825 Hermann finished the edition of Sophocles begun by Erfurdt. His edition of Aeschylus was published after his death in 1852. The Opuscula, a collection of his smaller writings in Latin, appeared in seven volumes between 1827 and 1839.

See monographs by O. Jahn (1849) and H. Köchly (1874); C. Bursian, Geschichte der klassischen Philologie in Deutschland (1883); art, in Allgem. deutsche Biog.; Sandys, Hist. Class. Schol. iii.

HERMANN, KARL FRIEDRICH (1804-1855), German classical scholar and antiquary, was born on the 4th of August 1804, at Frankfort-on-Main. Having studied at the universities of Heidelberg and Leipzig, he went for a tour in Italy, on his return from which he lectured as Privatdozent in Heidelberg. In 1832 he was called to Marburg as professor ordinarius of classical

attributes its bad reputation to the attempt of the inhabitants of the country to find some excuse for the demoralization caused by their own luxurious and effeminate habits of life. There was a famous statue of Hermaphroditus by Polycles of Athens, probably the younger of the two statuaries of that name. In later Greek art he was a favourite subject.

See articles in Daremberg and Saglio, Dictionnaire des antiquités, and Roscher's Lexikon der Mythologie; and for art, A. Baumeister, Denkmäler des klassischen Altertums (1884-1888).

HERMAS, SHEPHERD OF, one of the works representing the Apostolic Fathers (q.v.), a hortatory writing which "holds the mirror up to the Church in Rome during the 3rd Christian generation. This is the period indicated by the evidence of the Muratorian Canon, which assigns it to the brother of Pius, Roman bishop c. 139-154. Probably it was not the fruit of a single effort of its author. Rather its contents came to him piecemeal and at various stages in his ministry as a Christian 'prophet," extending over a period of years; and, like certain Old Testament prophets, he shows us how by his own experiences he became the medium of a divine message to his church and to God's "elect " people at large.

In its present form it falls under three heads: Visions, Mandates, Similitudes. But these divisions are misleading. The personal and preliminary revelation embodied in Vision i. brings the prophet a new sense of sin as essentially a matter of the heart,

with the composition of the Latin hymns Veni Sancte Spiritus, Salve
discovered by E. Dummier in a MS. at Stuttgart, and was published
Regina, and Alma Redemptoris. A martyrologium by Hermann was
by him in "Das Martyrologium Nolkers und seine Verwandten "
in Forschungen zur deutschen Geschichte, xxv. (Göttingen, 1885).
See H. Hansjakob, Herimann der Lahme (Mainz, 1875); Potthast,
Bibliotheca med. aev. s. "Herimannus Augiensis."

HERMANN OF WIED (1477-1552), elector and archbishop
of Cologne, was the fourth son of Frederick, count of Wied
(d. 1487), and was born on the 14th of January 1477. Educated
for the Church, he became elector and archbishop in 1515, and
ruled his electorate with vigour and intelligence, taking up at
first an attitude of hostility towards the reformers and their
teaching. quarrel with the papacy turned, or helped to turn,
his thoughts in the direction of Church reform, but he hoped
this would come from within rather than from without, and with
the aid of his friend John Gropper (1503-1559), began, about
1536, to institute certain reforms in his own diocese. One step led
to another, and as all efforts at union failed the elector invited
Martin Bucer to Cologne in 1542. Supported by the estates
of the electorate, and relying upon the recess of the diet of
Regensburg in 1541, he encouraged Bucer to press on with
the work of reform, and in 1543 invited Melanchthon to his
assistance. His conversion was hailed with great joy by the
Protestants, and the league of Schmalkalden declared they were
resolved to defend him; but the Reformation in the electorate
received checks from the victory of Charles V. over William,
duke of Cleves, and the hostility of the citizens of Cologne.
Summoned both before the emperor and the pope, the elector
was deposed and excommunicated by Paul III. in 1546. He
resigned his office in February 1547, and retired to Wied.
Hermann, who was also a bishop of Paderborn from 1532 to
1547, died on the 15th of August 1552.

HERMANN I. (d. 1217), landgrave of Thuringia and count palatine of Saxony, was the second son of Louls II. the Hard, landgrave of Thuringia, and Judith of Hohenstaufen, sister of the emperor Frederick I. Little is known of his early years, but in 1180 he joined a coalition against Henry the Lion, duke of Saxony, and with his brother, the landgrave Louis III., suffered a short imprisonment after his defeat at Weissensee by Henry. About this time he received from his brother Louis the Saxon palatinate, over which he strengthened his authority by marrying Sophia, sister of Adalbert, count of Sommerschenburg, a former count palatine. In 1190 Louis died and Hermann by his energetic measures frustrated the attempt of the emperor Henry VI. to seize Thuringia as a vacant fief of the Empire, and established himself as landgrave. Having joined a league against the emperor he was accused, probably wrongly, of an attempt to murder him. Henry was not only successful in detaching Hermann from the hostile combination, but gained his support for the scheme to unite Sicily with the Empire. In 1197 Hermann went on crusade. When Henry VI. died in 1198 Hermann's support was purchased by the late emperor's brother Philip, duke of Swabia, but as soon as Philip's cause appeared to be weakening he transferred his allegiance to Otto of Brunswick, afterwards the emperor Otto IV. Philip accordingly invaded Thuringia in 1204 and compelled Hermann to come to terms by which he surrendered the lands he had obtained in 1198. After the death of Philip and the recognition of Otto he was among the princes who invited Frederick of Hohenstaufen, afterwards the emperor Frederick II., to come to Germany and assume the crown. In consequence of this step the Saxons attacked Thuringia, but the landgrave was saved by Frederick's arrival in Germany in 1212. After the death of his first wife in 1195 Hermann married Sophia, daughter of Otto I., duke of Bavaria. By her he had four sons, two of whom, Louis and See C. Varrentrapp, Hermann von Wied (Leipzig, 1878). Henry Raspe, succeeded their father in turn as landgrave. HERMANN, FRiedrich beneDICT WILHELM VON (1795Hermann died at Gotha on the 25th of April 1217, and was 1868), German economist, was born on the 5th of December buried at Reinhardsbrunn. He was fond of the society of men 1795, at Dinkelsbühl in Bavaria. After finishing his primary of letters, and Walther von der Vogelwcide and other Minne-education he was for some time employed in a draughtsman's singers were welcomed to his castle of the Wartburg. In this office. He then resumed his studies, partly at the gymnasium connexion he figures in Wagner's Tannhäuser.

See E. Winkelmann, Philipp von Schwaben und Otto IV. von Braunschweig (Leipzig, 1873-1878); T. Knochenhauer, Geschichte Thuringens (Gotha, 1871); and F. Wachter, Thuringische und obersachsische Geschichte (Leipzig, 1826).

HERMANN OF REICHENAU (IERIMANNUS AUCIENSIS), commonly distinguished as Hermannus Contractus, i.e. the Lame (1013-1054), German scholar and chronicler, was the son of Count Wolierad of Alshausen in Swabia. Hermann, who became a monk of the famous abbey of Reichenau, is at once one of the most attractive and one of the most pathetic figures of medieval monasticism. Crippled and distorted by gout from his childhood, he was deprived of the use of his legs, but, in spite of this, he became one of the most learned men of his time, and exercised a great personal and intellectual influence on the numerous band of scholars he gathered round him. He died on the 24th of September 1054, at the family castle of Alshausen near Biberach. Besides the ordinary studies of the monastic scholar, he devoted himself to mathematics, astronomy and music, and constructed watches and instruments of various kinds.

in his native town, partly at the universities of Erlangen and Würzburg. In 1817 he took up a private school at Nuremberg, where he remained for four years. After filling an appointment as teacher of mathematics at the gymnasium of Erlangen, he became in 1823 Privatdozent at the university in that town. His inaugural dissertation was on the notions of political economy among the Romans (Dissertatio exhibens sententias Romanorum ad oeconomiam politicam pertinentes, Erlangen, 1823). He after、 wards acted as professor of mathematics at the gymnasium and polytechnic school in Nuremberg, where he continued till 1827. During his stay there he published an elementary treatise on arithmetic and algebra (Lehrbuch der Arith. u. Algeb., 1826), and made a journey to France to inspect the organization and conduct of technical schools in that country. The results of his investigation were published in 1826 and 1828 (Über technische Unterrichts-Anstalten). Soon after his return from France he was made professor extraordinarius of political science of the university of Munich, and in 1833 he was advanced to the rank of ordinary professor. In 1832 appeared the first edition of his great work on political, economy, Staatswirth

His chief work is a Chronicon ad annum 1054, which furnishes important and original material for the history of the emperor Henryschaftliche Untersuchungen. In 1835 he was made member of the III. The first edition, from a MS. no longer extant, was printed by J. Sichard at Basel in 1529, and reissued by Heinrich Peter in 1549; another edition appeared at St Blaise in 1790 under the supervision of Ussermann; and a third, as a result of the collation of numerous MSS., forms part of vol. v. of Pertz's Monumenta Germaniae historica. A German translation of the last is contributed by K. F. A. Nobbe to Die Geschichtsschreiber der deutschen Vorzeit (1st ed., Berlin, 1851; 2nd ed., Leipzig, 1893). The separate lives of Conrad II. and Henry III., often ascribed to Hermann, appear to have perished. His treatises De mensura astrolabii and De utilitatibus astrolabii (to be found, on the authority of Salzburg MSS., in Pez, Thesaurus anecdolorum novissimus, iii.) being the first contributions of moment furnished by a European to this subject, Hermann was for a time considered the inventor of the astrolabe. A didactic poem from his pen. De octo vitiis principalibus, is printed in Haupt's Zeitschrift für deutsches Alterthum (vol. xiii.); and he is sometimes credited

Royal Bavarian Academy of Sciences. From the year 1836 he acted as inspector of technical instruction in Bavaria, and made frequent journeys to Berlin and Paris in order to study the methods there pursued. In the state service of Bavaria, to which he devoted himself, he rose rapidly. In 1837 he was placed on the council for superintendence of church and school work; in 1839 he was entrusted with the direction of the bureau of statistics; in 1845 he was one of the councillors for the interior; in 1848 he sat as member for Munich in the national assembly at Frankfort. In this assembly Hermann, with Johann Heckscher and others, was mainly instrumental in organizing the so-called "Great German "party, and was selected as one of the representatives of their views at Vienna. Warmly supporting the customs