at every possible opportunity, becoming immersed in Kant's Critique of Pure Reason, and while still a lad took part in certain politico-social movements which aimed at the elevation of the working man. It was at this juncture that he met Orestes Brownson, who exercised a marked influence over him. Isaac was deeply religious, a characteristic for which he gave much credit to his prayerful mother, and remained so amid all the reading and agitating in which he engaged. Having grown into young manhood, he joined the Brook Farm movement, and in that colony he tarried some six months. Shortly after leaving it (in 1844) he was baptized into the Roman Catholic Church by Bishop McCloskey of New York. One year later he was entered in the novitiate of the Redemptorists in Belgium, and there he cultivated to a high degree the spirit of lofty mystical piety which marked him through life.

project of Catholic enterprise. From the American priesthood, Father Hecker stood out conspicuous for sturdy courage, deep interior piety, an assertive self-initiative and immense love of modern times and modern liberty. So they took Father Hecker for a kind of patron saint. His biography (New York, 1891), written in English by the Paulist Father Elliott, was translated into French (1897), and speedily became the book of the hour. Under the inspiration of Father Hecker's life and character, the more spirited section of the French clergy undertook the task of persuading their fellowpriests loyally to accept the actual political establishment, and then, breaking out of their isolation, to put themselves in touch with the intellectual life of the country, and take an active part in the work of social amelioration.

In 1897 the movement received an impetus-and a warningwhen Mgr O'Connell, former Rector of the American College in Rome, spoke on behalf of Father Hecker's ideas at the Catholic Congress in Friburg. The conservatives took alarm at what they considered to be symptoms of pernicious modernism or "Liberalism." Did not the watchword" Allons au peuple" savour of heresy? Did it not tend toward breaking down the divinely established distinction between the priest and the layman, and conceding something to the laity in the management of the Church? The insistence upon with the fundamental principle of Catholicism, obedience to authority. individual initiative was judged to be incompatible Moreover, the conservatives were, almost to a man, anti-republicans who distrusted and disliked the democratic abbés. Complaints were sent to Rome. A violent polemic against the new movement was launched in Abbé Maignan's Le père Hecker, est-il un saint? (1898). Repugnance to American tendencies and influences had a strong representation in the Curia and in powerful circles in Rome. Leo XIII. was extremely reluctant to pronounce any strictures upon American Catholics, of whose loyalty to the Roman See, and to their faith, he had often spoken in terms of high approbation. But he yielded, in a measure, to the pressure brought to bear upon him, and, early in February 1899, addressed to Cardinal Gibbons the Brief Testem Benevolentiae. This document contained a condemnation of the following doctrines or tendencies: (a) undue insistence on interior initiative in the spiritual life, as leading to disobedience; (b) attacks on religious vows, and disparagement of the value in the

Ordained a priest in London by Wiseman in 1849, he returned to America, and worked until 1857 as a Redemptorist missionary. With all his mysticism, Isaac Hecker had the wide-awake mind of the typical American, and he perceived that the missionary activity of the Catholic Church in the United States must remain to a large extent ineffective unless it adopted methods suited to the country and the age. In this he had the sympathy of four fellow Redemptorists, who like himself were of American birth and converts from Protestantism. Acting as their agent, and with the consent of his local superiors, Hecker went to Rome to beg of the Rector Major of his Order that a Redemptorist novitiate might be opened in the United States, in order thus to attract American youths to the missionary life. In furtherance of this request, he took with him the strong approval of some members of the American hierarchy. The Rector Major, instead of listening to Father Hecker, expelled him from the Order for having made the journey to Rome without sufficient authoriza-present age, of religious orders; (c) minimizing Catholic doctrine: tion. The outcome of the trouble was that Hecker and the other four American Redemptorists were permitted by Pius IX. in 1858 to form the separate religious community of the Paulists. Hecker trained and governed this community in spiritual exercises and mission-preaching until his death in New York City, after seventeen years of suffering, on the 22nd of December 1888. He founded and was the director of the Catholic Publication Society, was the founder, and from 1865 until his death the editor, of the Catholic World, and wrote Questions of the Soul (1855), Aspirations of Nature (1857), Catholicity in the United States (1879) and The Church and the Age (1888).

The name of Hecker is closely associated with that of "Americanism." To understand this movement it is necessary to comprehend the tendency of events in Catholic Europe rather than in America itself. The steady decline in the power and influence of French Catholicism since shortly after 1870 is the most remarkable feature of the history of the Third Republic. Not only did the French State pass laws bearing more and more stringently on the Church, under each succeeding ministry, but the bulk of the people acquiesced in the policy of its legislators. The clergy, if not Catholicism, was rapidly losing its hold over the once Catholic nation. Observing this fact, and encouraged by the action of Leo XIII., who, in 1892 called on French Catholics loyally to accept the Republic, a body of vigorous young French priests set themselves to check the disaster. They studied the causes which produced it. These causes, they considered to be, first, the clergy's predominant sympathy with the monarchists, and in its undisguised hostility to the Republic; secondly, the Church's aloofness from modern men, methods and thought. The progressive party believed that there was too little cultivation of individual, independent character, while too much stress was laid upon what might be called the mechanical or routine side of religion. The party perceived, too, that Catholicism was making scarcely any use of modern aggressive modes of propaganda; that, for example, the Church took but an insignificant part in social movements, in the organization of clubs for social study, in the establishing of settlements and similar philanthropic endeavour. Lack of adaptability to modern needs expresses in short the deficiencies in Catholicism which these men endeavoured to correct. They began a domestic apostolate which had for one of its rallying cries, "Allons au peuple," "Let us go to the people." They agitated for the inauguration of social works, for a more intimate mingling of priests with the people, and for general cultivation of personal initiative, both in clergy and in laity.

Not unnaturally, they fooked for inspiration to America. There they saw a vigorous Church among a free people, with priests publicly respected. and with a note of aggressive zeal in every

(d) minimizing the importance of spiritual direction. The brief did
held by Hecker or existed among Americans. Its tenour was, that
not assert that any unsound doctrine on the above points had been
if such opinions did exist, the Pope called upon the hierarchy to
eradicate the evil. Cardinal Gibbons and many other prelates
replied to Rome. With all but unanimity, they declared that the
incriminated opinions had no existence among American Catholics.
It was well known that Hecker never had countenanced the slightest
departure from Catholic principles in their fullest and most strict
application. The disturbance caused by the condemnation was
slight; almost the entire laity, and a considerable part of the clergy,
never understood what the noise was about. The affair was soon
forgotten, but the result was to strengthen the hands of the con-
servatives in France.
(J. J. F.)

HECKMONDWIKE, an urban district in the Spen Valley parliamentary division of the West Riding of Yorkshire, England, 8 m. S.S.E. of Bradford, on the Lancashire & Yorkshire, Great Northern, and London & North-Western railways. Pop. (1901), 9459. Like the town of Dewsbury, on the south-east, it is an important centre of the blanket and carpet manufactures, and there are also machine works, dye works and iron foundries. Coal is extensively wrought in the vicinity.

HECTOR, in Greek mythology, son of Priam and Hecuba, the husband of Andromache. Like Paris and other Trojans, he had an Oriental name, Darius. In Homer he is represented as an ideal warrior, the champion of the Trojans and the mainstay of the city. His character is drawn in most favourable colours as a good son, a loving husband and father, and a trusty friend. His leave-taking of Andromache in the sixth book of the Iliad, and his departure to meet Achilles for the last time, are most touchingly described. He is an especial favourite of Apollo; and later poets even describe him as son of that god. His chief exploits during the war were his defence of the wounded Sarpedon, his fight with Ajax, son of Telamon (his particular enemy), and the storming of the Greek ramparts. When Achilles, enraged with Agamemnon, deserted the Greeks, Hector drove them back to their ships, which he almost succeeded in burning. Patroclus, the friend of Achilles, who came to the help of the Greeks, was slain by Hector with the help of Apollo. Then Achilles, to revenge his friend's death, returned to the war, slew Hector, dragged his body behind his chariot to the camp, and afterwards round the tomb of Patroclus. Aphrodite and Apollo preserved

it from corruption and mutilation. Priam, guarded by Hermes, | went to Achilles and prevailed on him to give back the body, which was buried with great honour. Hector was afterwards worshipped in the Troad by the Boeotian tribe Gephyraei, who offered sacrifices at his grave.

HECUBA (Gr. Ekáßn), wife of Priam, daughter of the Phrygian king Dymas (or of Cisseus, or of the river-god Sangarius). According to Homer she was the mother of nineteen of Priam's fifty sons. When Troy was captured and Priam slain, she was made prisoner by the Greeks. Her fate is told in various ways, most of which connect her with the promontory Cynossema, on the Thracian shore of the Hellespont. According to Euripides (in the Hecuba), her youngest son Polydorus had been placed during the siege of Troy under the care of Polymestor, king of Thrace. When the Greeks reached the Thracian Chersonese on their way home Hecuba discovered that her son had been murdered, and in revenge put out the eyes of Polymestor and murdered his two sons. She was acquitted by Agamemnon; but, as Polymestor foretold, she was turned into a dog, and her grave became a mark for ships (Ovid, Metam. xiii. 399-575; Juvenal x. 271 and Mayor's note). According to another story, she fell to the lot of Odysseus, as a slave, and in despair threw herself into the Hellespont; or, she used such insulting language towards her captors that they put her to death (Dictys Cretensis v. 13. 16). It is obvious from the tales of Hecuba's transformation and death that she is a form of some goddess to whom dogs were sacred; and the analogy with Scylla is striking.

J

HEDA, WILLEM CLAASZ (c. 1594-c. 1670), Dutch painter, born at Haarlem, was one of the earliest Dutchmen who devoted himself exclusively to the painting of still life. He was the contemporary and comrade of Dirk Hals, with whom he had in common pictorial touch and technical execution. But Heda was more careful and finished than Hals, and showed considerable skill and not a little taste in arranging and colouring chased cups and beakers and tankards of precious and inferior metals. Nothing is so appetizing as his "luncheon," with rare comestibles set out upon rich plate, oysters-seldom without the cut lemon-bread, champagne, olives and pastry. Even the commoner "refection" is also not without charm, as it comprises a cut ham, bread, walnuts and beer. One of Heda's early masterpieces, dated 1623, in the Munich Pinakothek is as homely as a later one of 1651 in the Liechtenstein Gallery at Vienna. A more luxurious repast is a " Luncheon in the Augsburg Gallery," dated 1644. Most of Heda's pictures are on the European continent, notably in the galleries of Paris, Parma, Ghent, Darmstadt, Gotha, Munich and Vienna. He was a man of repute in his native city, and filled all the offices of dignity and trust in the gild of Haarlem. He seems to have had considerable influence in forming the younger Franz Hals. I

HEDDLE, MATTHEW FORSTER (1828-1897), Scottish mineralogist, was born at Hoy in Orkney on the 28th of April 1828., After receiving his early education at the Edinburgh academy, he entered as a medical student at the university in that city, and subsequently studied chemistry and mineralogy at Klausthal and Freiburg. In 1851 he took his degree of M.D. at Edinburgh, and for about five years practised there. Medical work, however, possessed for him little attraction; he became assistant to Prof. Connell, who held the chair of chemistry at St Andrews, and in 1862 succeeded him as professor. This post he held until in 1880 he was invited to report on some gold mines in South Africa. On his return he devoted himself with great assiduity to mineralogy, and formed one of the finest collections by means of personal exploration in almost every part of Scotland. His specimens are now in the Royal Scottish Museum at Edinburgh. It had been his intention to publish a comprehensive work on the mineralogy of Scotland. This he did not live to complete, but the MSS. fell into able hands, and The Mineralogy of Scotland, in 2 vols., edited by J. G. Goodchild, was issued in 1901. Heddle was one of the founders of the Mineralogical Society, and he contributed many articles on Scottish minerals, and on the geology of the northern parts of Scotland, to the

Mineralogical Magazine, as well as to the Transactions of the
Royal Society of Edinburgh. He died on the 19th of November
1897.
Goodchild, Trans. Edin. Geol. Soc. (1898) vii. 317.
See Dr Heddle and his Geological Work (with portrait), by J. G.

Insectivora, remarkable for its dentition, its armature of spines
HEDGEHOG, or URCHIN, a member of the mammalian order
and its short tail. The upper jaw is longer than the lower, the
snout is long and flexible, with the nostrils narrow, and the
its eyes are small, and the lower surface covered with hairs of
claws are long but weak. The animal is about 10 in. long,
the ordinary character. The brain is remarkable for its low
development, the cerebral hemispheres being small, and marked
with but one groove, and that a shallow one, on each side. The
hedgehog has the power of rolling itself up into a ball, from
which the spines stand out in every direction. The spines are
sharp, hard and elastic, and form so efficient a defence that
there are few animals able to effect a successful attack on this
creature. The moment it is touched, or even hears the report of
the skin, while this contraction effects the erection of the spines.
a gun, it rolls itself up by the action of the muscles beneath
The most important muscle is the orbicularis panniculi, which
extends over the anterior region of the skull, as far down the body

་

The Hedgehog (Erinaceus europaeus).

as the 'ventral hairy region, and on to the tail, but three other muscles' aid in the contraction.

Though insectivorous, the hedgehog is reported to have a liking for mice, while frogs and toads, as well as plants and fruits, all seem to be acceptable. It will also eat snakes, and its fondness for eggs has caused it to meet with the enmity of gamepreservers; and there is no doubt it occasionally attacks leverets and game-chicks. In a state of nature it does not emerge from its retreat during daylight, unless urged by hunger or by the necessities of its young. During winter it passes into a state of hibernation, when its temperature falls considerably; having provided itself with a nest of dry leaves, it is well protected from the influences of the rain, and rolling itself up, remains undisturbed till warmer weather returns.. In July or August the female brings forth four to eight young, or, according to others, two to four at a somewhat earlier period; at birth the spines, which in the adult are black in the middle, are white and soft, but soon harden, though they do not attain their full size until the succeeding spring.

The hedgehog, which is known scientifically as Erinaceus europaeus, and is the type of the family Erinaceidae, is found in woods, and gardens, and extends over nearly the whole of Europe; and has been found at 6000 to 8000 ft. above the level of the sea. The adult is provided with thirty-six teeth; in the upper jaw are 6 incisors, 2 canines and 12 cheek-teeth, and in the lower jaw 4 incisors, 2 canines and 10 cheek-teeth. The genus is represented by about a score of species, ranging over Europe, Asia, except the Malay countries, and Africa. (R. L.*)

HEDGES AND FENCES. The object of the hedge or fence (abbreviation of "defence ") is to mark a boundary or to enclose 1 Hedge is a Teutonic word, cf. Dutch heg, Ger. Hecke; the root appears in other English words, e.g. "haw," as in "hawthorn."

According to tradition the men of Hedon received a charter of liberties from King Æthelstan, but there is no evidence to prove this or indeed to prove any settlement in the town until after the Conquest. The manor is not mentioned in the Domesday Survey, but formed part of the lordship of Holderness which William the Conqueror granted to Odo, count of Albemarle. The confusion already alluded to between "pure" and A charter of Henry II., which is undated, contains the first certain "rational " hedonism is nowhere more clearly exemplified than evidence of settlement. By it the king granted to William, I in the misconceptions which have arisen as to the doctrine of

the Epicureans. To identify Epicureanism with Cyrenaicism | the snake lies coiled under the grass, there a skull rests on is a complete misunderstanding. It is true that pleasure is the blooming plants. Gold and silver tankards or cups suggest summum bonum of Epicurus, but his conception of that pleasure the vanity of earthly possessions; salvation is allegorized in a is profoundly modified by the Socratic doctrine of prudence chalice amidst blossoms, death as a crucifix inside a wreath. and the eudaemonism of Aristotle. The true hedonist will aim Sometimes de Heem painted alone, sometimes in company with at a life of enduring rational happiness; pleasure is the end of men of his school, Madonnas or portraits surrounded by festoons life, but true pleasure can be obtained only under the guidance of fruit or flowers. At one time he signed with initials, at others of reason. Self-control in the choice of pleasures with a view with Johannes, at others again with the name of his father to reducing pain to a minimum is indispensable. "Of all this, joined to his own. At rare intervals he condescended to a date, the beginning, and the greatest good, is prudence." The negative and when he did the work was certainly of the best. De Heem side of Epicurean hedonism was developed to such an extent by entered the gild of Antwerp in 1635-1636, and became a burgher some members of the school (see HEGESIAS) that the ideal life of that city in 1637. He steadily maintained his residence till is held to be rather indifference to pain than positive enjoyment. 1667, when he moved to Utrecht, where traces of his presence This pessimistic attitude is far removed from the positive are preserved in records of 1668, 1669 and 1670. It is not known hedonism of Aristippus. when he finally returned to Antwerp, but his death is recorded in the gild books of that place. A very early picture, dated 1628, in the gallery of Gotha, bearing the signature of Johannes in full, shows that de Heem at that time was familiar with the technical habits of execution peculiar to the youth of Albert Cuyp. In later years he completely shook off dependence, and appears in all the vigour of his own originality.

the poem entitled Minnekunde, or the Science of Love. He | Schoreel and Mabuse. As late as 1551 his memory still served proceeded to Amsterdam in 1640, where he married Alida, him to produce a copy from Raphael's "Madonna di Loretto sister of the statesman Van Beuningen. In 1641 he published (gallery of Haarlem). A "Judgment of Momus," dated 1561, in a Dutch version of Corneille's The Cid, a tragi-comedy, and in the Berlin Museum, proves him to have been well acquainted 1647 his most famous work, the pastoral romance of Batavische with anatomy, but incapable of selection and insensible of grace, Arcadia, which he had written ten years before. During the bold of hand and prone to daring though tawdry contrasts of last twelve years of his life Heemskerk sat in the upper chamber colour, and fond of florid architecture. Two altar-pieces which of the states-general. He died at Amsterdam on the 27th of he finished for churches at Delft in 1551 and 1559, one complete, February 1656. the other a fragment, in the museum of Haarlem, a third of 1551 in the Brussels Museum, representing "Golgotha," the "Crucifixion," the "Flight into Egypt," "Christ on the Mount," and scenes from the lives of St Bernard and St Benedict, are all fairly representative of his style. Besides these we have the "Crucifixion" in the Hermitage of St Petersburg, and two "Triumphs of Silenus" in the gallery of Vienna, in which the same relation to Giulio Romano may be noted as we mark in the canvases of Rinaldo of Mantua. Other pieces of varying importance are in the galleries of Rotterdam, Munich, Cassel, Brunswick, Karlsruhe, Mainz and Copenhagen. In England the master is best known by his drawings. A comparatively feeble picture by him is the "Last Judgment " in the palace of Hampton Court.