darash to "investigate "" a scriptural passage. Of this halakhic | In the Babylonian Talmud (Babhli) there is no gemara to the Midrash we possess that on Exodus, called Mekhilta. that on smaller tractates of Order 1, and to parts of ii., iv., v., vi. The Leviticus, called Sifra, and that on Numbers and Deuteronomy, language of both gemaras is in the main the Aramaic vernacular called Sifre. All of these were drawn up in the period of the (western Aramaic in Yerushalmi, eastern in Babhli), but early Amoraim, the order of teachers who succeeded the Tannāim, halakhic traditions (e.g. of Tannaitic origin) are given in their from the close of the Mishnah to about A.D. 500. The term original form, and the discussion of them is usually also in Midrash, however, more commonly implies agada, i.e. the Hebrew. Babhli is not only greater in bulk than Yerushalmi, homiletical exposition of the text, with illustrations designed but has also received far greater attention, so that the name to make it more attractive to the readers or hearer. Picturesque Talmud alone is often used for it. As being a constant object of teaching of this kind was always popular, and specimens of it study numerous commentaries have been written on the Talmud are familiar in the Gospel discourses. It began, as a method, from the earliest times till the present. The most important of with the Sōpherim (though there are traces in the Old Testament them for the understanding of the gemara (Babhli) is that of itself), and was most developed among the Tannăim and Amor- Rashi3 (Solomon ben Isaac, d. 1104) with the Tōsafōth (additions, aim, rivalling even the study of halakhah. As the existing not to be confused with the Tosefta) chiefly by the French school halakhōth were collected and edited in the Mishnah, so the of rabbis following Rashi. These are always printed in the much larger agadic material was gathered together and arranged editions on the same page as the Mishnah and Gemara, the whole, in the Midrashim. Apart from the agadic parts of the earlier with various other matter, filling generally about 12 folio volumes. Mekhilta, Sifra and Sifre, the most important of these collections Since the introduction of printing, the Talmud is always cited by (which are anonymous) form a sort of continuous commentary the number of the leaf in the first edition (Venice, 1520, &c.), on various books of the Bible. They were called Rabboth (great to which all subsequent editions conform. In order to facilitate Midrashim) to distinguish them from preceding smaller collec-the practical study of the Talmud, it was natural that abridgetions. Bereshith Rabba, on Genesis, and Èkhah Rabbati, on Lamen-ments of it should be made. Two of these may be mentioned tations, were probably edited in the 7th century. Of the same which are usually found in the larger editions: that by Isaac character and of about the same date are the Pesiqta, on the | Alfasi (i.e. of Fez) in the 11th century, often cited in the Jewish lessons for Sabbaths and feast-days, and Wayyiqra R. on Leviti- manner as Rif; and that by Asher ben Yeḥiel (d. 1328) of cus. A century perhaps later is the Tanhuma, on the sections of Toledo, usually cited as Rabbenu Asher. The object of both was the Pentateuch, and later still the Pesiqla Rabbati, Shemōth R. to collect all halakhōth having a practical importance, omitting (on Exodus), Bemidhbar R. (on Numbers), Debharim R. (on all those which owing to circumstances no longer possess more Deuteronomy). There are also Midrashim on the Canticle, than an academic interest, and excluding the discussions on them Ruth, Ecclesiastes, Esther and the Psalms, belonging to this and all agada. Both add notes and explanations of their own, later period, the Pirqe R. Eliezer, of the 8th or 9th century, a and both have in turn formed the text of commentaries. sort of history of creation and of the patriarchs, and the Tanna With the Talmud, the anonymous period of Hebrew literature debe Eliyahu (an ethical work of the roth century but containing may be considered to end. Henceforward important works much that is old), besides a large number of minor compositions.' are produced not by schools but by particular teachers, In general, these performed very much the same function as who, however, no doubt often represent the opinions the lives of saints in the early and medieval church. Very of a school. There are two branches of work which partake important for the study of Midrashic literature are the Yalqut of both characters, the Masorah and the Liturgy. The name (gleaning) Shim'ōni, on the whole Bible, the Yalquṭ Mekhiri, Masorah (Massorah) is usually derived from masar, to hand on, on the Prophets, Psalms, Proverbs and Job, and the Midrash and explained as "tradition." According to others' it is the word ha-gadhol, all of which are of uncertain but late date and found in Ezek. xx. 37, meaning a "fetter." Its object was to preserve earlier material. The last, which is preserved in MSS. fix the biblical text unalterably. It is generally divided into the from Yemen, is especially valuable as representing an independent Great and the Small Masorah, forming together an apparatus tradition. criticus which grew up gradually in the course of centuries and now accompanies the text in most MSS. and printed editions to a greater or less extent. There are also separate masoretic treatises. Some system of the kind was necessary to guard against corruptions of copyists, while the care bestowed upon it no doubt reacted so as to enhance the sanctity ascribed to the text. Many apparent puerilities, such as the counting of letters and the marking of the middle point of books, had a practical use in enabling copyists of MSS. to determine the amount of work done. The registration of anomalies, such as the suspended letters, inverted nuns and larger letters, enabled any one to test the accuracy of a copy. But the work of the Masoretes was much greater than this. Their long lists of the occurrences of words and forms fixed with accuracy the present (Masoretic) text, which they had produced, and were invaluable to subsequent lexicographers, while their system of vowel-points and accents not only gives us the pronunciation and manner of reading traditional about the 7th century A.D., but frequently serves also the purpose of an explanatory commentary. (See further under BIBLE.) Most of the Masorah is anonymous, including the Massekheth Soferim (of various dates from perhaps the 6th to the 9th century) and the Okhlah we-Okhlah, but when the period of anonymous literature ceases, there appear (in the 10th century) Ben Asher of Tiberias, the greatest authority on the subject, and his opponent Ben Naphthali. Later on, Jacob

Meanwhile, if agadic exegesis was popular in the centuries following the redaction of the Mishna, the study of halakhah was by no means neglected. As the discussion of the Talmud. Law led up to the compilation of the Mishnah, so the

Mishnah itself became in turn the subject of further discussion. The material thus accumulated, both halakhic and agadic, forming a commentary on and amplification of the Mishnah, was eventually written down under the name of Gemara (from gemar, to learn completely), the two together forming the Talmud (properly" instruction "). The tradition, as in the case of the Targums, was again twofold; that which had grown up in the Palestinian Schools and that of Babylonia. The foundation, however, the Mishnah, was the same in both. Both works were due to the Amoraim and were completed by about A.D. 500, though the date at which they were actually committed to writing is very uncertain. It is probable that notes or selections were from time to time written down to help in teaching and learning the immense mass of material, in spite of the fact that even in Sherira's time (11th century) such aids to memory were not officially recognized. Both Talmuds are arranged according to the six orders of the Mishnah, but the discussion of the Mishnic text often wanders off into widely different topics. Neither is altogether complete. In the Palestinian Talmud (Yerushalmi) the gemara of the 5th order (Qodashim) and of nearly all the 6th (Ţohōrōth) is missing, besides smaller parts.

1 See, especially A. Jellinek's Bet-ha-Midrasch (Leipzig, 1853), for these lesser midrashim.

That on Genesis was edited for the first time by Schechter (Cambridge, 1902).

Masorah.

ben Ḥayyim arranged the Masorah for the great Bomberg Bible of 1524. Elias Levita's Massoreth ha-Massoreth (1538) and Buxtorf's Tiberias (1620) are also important.

| (partly in Arabic) not only numerous Responsa, but also treatises
on law, commentaries on the Mishnah and the Bible, à lexicon
called in Arabic al-Hawi, and poems such as the Musar Haskel,
but most of them are now lost or known only from translations
or quotations. Though his teaching was largely directed against
superstition, he seems to have been inclined to mysticism, and
perhaps for this reason various kabbalistic works were ascribed
to him in later times. His father-in-law Samuel ben Ḥophni,
last Gaon of Sura (d. 1034), was a voluminous writer on law,
translated the Pentateuch into Arabic, commented on much of
the Bible, and composed an Arabic introduction to the Talmud,
of which the existing Hebrew introduction (by Samuel the Nagid)
is perhaps a translation. Most of his works are now lost.
In the Geonic period there came into prominence the sect of
the Karaites (Benē migrâ, “followers of the Scripture", the pro-
testants of Judaism, who rejected rabbinical authority,
basing their doctrine and practice exclusively on Karaltes.
the Bible. The sect was founded by 'Anan in the 8th
century, and, after many vicissitudes, still exists. Their litera-
ture, with which alone we are here concerned, is largely polemical
and to a great extent deals with grammar and exegesis. Of
their first important authors, Benjamin al-Nehawendi and Daniel
al-Qūmisi (both in the 9th century), little is preserved. In the
10th century Jacob al-Qirqisani wrote his Kitab al-anwär, on

The

We must now turn back to a most difficult subject-the growth of the Liturgy. We are not concerned here with indications of the ritual used in the Temple. Of the prayerLiturgy. book as it is at present, the earliest parts are the Shema' (Deut. vi. 4, &c.) and the anonymous blessings commonly called Shemoneh 'Esreh (the Eighteen), together with certain Psalms. (Readings from the Law and the Prophets [Haphțarah] also formed part of the service.) To this framework were fitted, from time to time, various prayers, and, for festivals especially, numerous hymns. The earliest existing codification of the prayerbook is the Siddür (order) drawn up by Amram Gaon of Sura about 850. Half a century later the famous Gaon Seadiah, also of Sura, issued his Siddur, in which the rubrical matter is in Arabic. Besides the Siddur, or order for Sabbaths and general use, there is the Maḥzor (cycle) for festivals and fasts. In both there are ritual differences according to the Sephardic (Spanish), Ashkenazic (German-Polish), Roman (Greek and South Italian) and some minor uses, in the later additions to the Liturgy. The Maḥzor of each rite is also distinguished by hymns (piyyūļīm) composed by authors (payyclanim) of the district. The most important writers are Yoseh ben Yosch, probably in the 6th century, chiefly known for his compositions for the day of Atone-law, Solomon ben Yeruḥam (against Seadiah) and Yefet ben ment, Eleazar Qalir, the founder of the payyetanic style, perhaps in the 7th century, Seadiah, and the Spanish school consisting of Joseph ibn Abitur (died in 970), Ibn Gabirol, Isaac Gayyath, Moses ben Ezra, Abraham ben Ezra and Judah ha-levi, who will be mentioned below; later, Moses ben Naḥman and Isaac Luria the Kabbalist.1

The
Geōnim.

The order of the Amoraim, which ended with the close of the Talmud (A.D. 500), was succeeded by that of the Sabōraim, who merely continued and explained the work of their predecessors, and these again were followed by the Geōnim, the heads of the schools of Sura and Pumbeditha in Babylonia. The office of Gaon lasted for something over 400 years, beginning about A.D. 600, and varied in importance according to the ability of the holders of it. Individual Geōnim produced valuable works (of which later), but what is perhaps most important from the point of view of the development of Judaism is the literature of their Responsa or answers to questions, chiefly on halakhic matters, addressed to them from various countries. Some of these were actual decisions of❘ particular Geōnim; others were an official summary of the discussion of the subject by the members of the School. They begin with Mar Rab Sheshna (7th century) and continue to Hai Gaon, who died in 1038, and are full of historical and literary interest. The She'iltōth (questions) of Rab Aḥai (8th century) also belong probably to the school of Pumbeditha, though their author was not Gaon. Besides the Responsa, but closely related to them, we have the lesser Halakhōth of Yehudai Gaon of Sura (8th century) and the great Halakhōth of Simeon Qayyara of Sura (not Gaon) in the 9th century. In a different department there is the first Talmud lexicon ('Arükh) now lost, by Zemaḥ ben Paltoi, Gaon of Pumbeditha in the 9th century. The Siddur of Amram ben Sheshna has been already mentioned. All these writers, however, are entirely eclipsed by the commanding personality of the most famous of the Geōnim, SEADIAH ben Joseph (q.v.) of Sura, often called al-Fayyūmi (of the Fayum in Egypt), one of the greatest representatives of Jewish learning of all times, who died in 942. The last three holders of the office were also distinguished. Sherira of Pumbeditha (d. 998) was the author of the famous "Letter" (in the form of a Responsum to a question addressed to him by residents in Kairawan), an historical document of the highest value and the foundation of our knowledge of the history of tradition. His son Hai, last Gaon of Pumbeditha (d. 1038), a man of wide learning, wrote 1 For the history of the very extensive literature of this class, Zunz, Literaturgeschichte der synagogalen Poesie (Berlin, 1865), is indispensable.

See the edition of them in Harkavy, Studien, iv. (Berlin, 1885).

Ali wrote exegetical works; in the 11th century Abu'l-faraj Furqan, exegesis, and Yusuf al-Başîr against Samuel ben Ḥophni. Most of these wrote in Arabic. In the 12th century and in S. Europe, Judah Hadassi composed his Eshkol ha-Köpher, a great theological compendium in the form of a commentary on the Decalogue. Other writers are Aaron (the elder) ben Joseph, 13th century, who wrote the commentary Sepher ha-mibhhar; Aaron (the younger) of Nicomedia (14th century), author of Ez Hayyim, on philosophy, Gan 'Eden, on law, and the commentary Kether Torah; in the 15th century Elijah Bashyazi, on law (Addereth Eliyahu), and Caleb Efendipoulo, poet and theologian; in the 16th century Moses Bashyazi, theologian. From the 12th century onward the sect gradually declined, being ultimately restricted mainly to the Crimea and Lithuania, learning disappeared and their literature became merely popular and of little interest. Much of it in later times was written in a curious Tatar dialect. Mention need only be made further of Isaac of Troki, whose anti-Christian polemic Hizzüq Emunah (1593) was translated into English by Moses Mocatta under the title of Faith Strengthened (1851); Solomon of Troki, whose Appiryōn, an account of Karaism, was written at the request of Pufendorf (about 1700); and Abraham Firkovich, who, in spite of his impostures, did much for the literature of his people about the middle of the 19th century. (See also QARAITES.)

Medieval scholar

ship.

To return to the period of the Geōnim. While the schools of Babylonia were flourishing as the religious head of Judaism, the West, and especially Spain under Moorish rule, was becoming the home of Jewish scholarship. On the breaking up of the schools many of the fugitives fled to the West and helped to promote rabbinical learning there. The communities of Fez, Kairawan and N. Africa were in close relation with those of Spain, and as early as the beginning of the 9th century Judah ben Quraish of Tahort had composed his Risalah (letter) to the Jews of Fez on grammatical subjects from a comparative point of view, and a dictionary now lost. His work was used in the 10th century by Menahem ben Saruq, of Cordova, in his Mahbereth (dictionary). Menahem's system of bi-literal and uni-literal roots was violently attacked by Dūnash ibn Labrāt, and as violently defended by the author's pupils. Among these was Judah Hayyuj of Cordova, the father of modern Hebrew grammar, who first established the principle of tri-literal roots. His treatises on the verbs, written in Arabic, were translated into Hebrew by Moses Giqatilla mentator, and by Ibn Ezra. His system was adopted by (11th century), himself a considerable grammarian and comAbu'l-walid ibn Jannaḥ, of Saragossa (died early in the 11th century), in his lexicon (Kitāb al-uşûl, in Arabic) and other works.

In Italy appeared the invaluable Talmud-lexicon ('Arukh) by | of the Talmud he is even now indispensable. He commented Nathan b. Yehiel, of Rome (d. 1106), who was indirectly on all the Bible and on nearly all the Talmud, has been himself indebted to Babylonian teaching. He does not strictly follow the text of several super-commentaries, and has exercised great the system of Hayyûj. Other works of a different kind also influence on Christian exegesis. The biblical commentary was originated in Italy about this time: the very popular history translated into Latin by Breithaupt (Gotha, 1710-1714), that on of the Jews, called Josippon (probably of the 10th or even 9th the Pentateuch rather freely into German by L. Dukes (Prag, century), ascribed to Joseph ben Gōriōn (Gorionides)'; the 1838, in Hebrew-German characters, with the text), and parts medical treatises of Shabbethai Donnolo (10th century) and his by others. Closely connected with Rashi, or of his school, are commentary on the Sepher Yezirah, the anonymous and earliest Joseph Qara, of Troyes (d. about 1130), the commentator, Hebrew kabbalistic work ascribed to the patriarch Abraham. and his teacher Menahem ben Helbō, Jacob ben Me'ir, called In North Africa, probably in the 9th century, appeared the Rabbenū Tam (d. 1171), the most important of the Tosaphists book known under the name of Eldad ha-Dani, giving an account (v. sup.), and later in the 12th century the liberal and rationalizing of the ten tribes, from which much medieval legend was derived; Joseph Bekhōr Shōr, and Samuel ben Me'ir (d. about 1174) of and in Kairawan the medical and philosophical treatises of Isaac Ramerupt, commentator and Talmudist. Israeli, who died in 932.

In the 12th and 13th centuries literature maintained a high level in Spain. Abraham bar Ḥiyya, known to Christian scholars as Abraham Judaeus (d. about 1136), was a mathematician, astronomer and philosopher much studied in the middle ages. Moses ben Ezra, of Granada (d. about 1140), wrote in Arabic a philosophical work based on Greek and Arabic as well as Jewish authorities, known by the name of the Hebrew translation as 'Arugath ha-bosem, and the Kitāb al-Maḥaḍarah, of great value for literary history. He is even better known as a poet, for his Diwan and the 'Anaq, and as a hymn-writer. His relative Abraham ben Ezra, generally called simply Ibn Ezra, was still more distinguished. He was born at Toledo, spent most of his life in travel, wandering even to England and to the East, and died in 1167. Yet he contrived to write his great commentary on the Pentateuch and other books of the Bible, treatises on philosophy (as the Yesōdh mora), astronomy, mathematics, grammar (translation of Ḥayyūj), besides a Diwan. The man, however, who shares with Ibn Gabirol the first place in Jewish poetry is Judah Ha-levi, of Toledo, who died in Jerusalem about 1140. His poems, both secular and religious, contained in his Diwan and scattered in the liturgy, are all in Hebrew, though he employed Arabic metres. In Arabic he wrote his philosophical work, called in the Hebrew translation Sepher ha-Küzari, a defence of revelation as against non-Jewish philosophy and Qaraite doctrine. It shows considerable knowledge of Greek and Arabic thought (Avicenna). Joseph ibn Mīgāsh (d. 1141 at Lucena), a friend of Judah Ha-levi and of Moses ben Ezra, wrote Responsa and Hiddūshin (annota

The aim of the grammatical studies of the Spanish school was ultimately exegesis. This had already been cultivated in the East. In the 9th century Hivi of Balkh wrote a Exegesis. rationalistic treatise on difficulties in the Bible, which was refuted by Seadiah. The commentaries of the Geonim have been mentioned above. The impulse to similar work in the West came also from Babylonia. In the 10th century Hushiel, one of four prisoners, perhaps from Babylonia, though that is doubtful, was ransomed and settled at Kairawan, where he acquired great reputation as a Talmudist. His son Hananeel (d. 1050) wrote a commentary on (probably all) the Talmud, and one now lost on the Pentateuch. Hananeel's contemporary Nissim ben Jacob, of Kairawan, who corresponded with Hai Gaon of Pumbeditha as well as with Samuel the Nagid in Spain, likewise wrote on the Talmud, and is probably the author of a collection of Ma'asiyyōth or edifying stories, besides works now lost. The activity in North Africa reacted on Spain. There the most prominent figure was that of Samuel ibn Nagdela (or Nagrela), generally known as Samuel the Nagid or head of the Jewish settlement, who died in 1055. As vizier to the Moorish king at Granada, he was not only a patron of learning, but himself a man of wide knowledge and a considerable author. Some of his poems are extant, and an Introduction to the Talmud mentioned above. In grammar he followed Hayyūj, whose pupil he was. Among others he was the patron of Solomon ibn Gabirol (q.v.), the poet and philosopher. To this period belong Hafz al-Quți (the Goth?) who made a version of the Psalms in Arabic rhyme, and Baḥya (more correctly Beḥai)|tions) on parts of the Talmud. In another sphere mention must ibn Paqūda, dayyan at Saragossa, whose Arabic ethical treatise has always had great popularity among the Jews in its Hebrew translation, Höbhōth ha-lebhabhōth. He also composed liturgical poems. At the end of the 11th century Judah ibn Bal'am wrote grammatical works and commentaries (on the Pentateuch, Isaiah, &c.) in Arabic; the liturgist Isaac Gayyath (d. in 1089 at Cordova) wrote on ritual. Moses Giqatilla has been already mentioned.

The French school of the 11th century was hardly less important. Gershom ben Judah, the Light of the Exile" (d.

Rashi.

in 1040 at Mainz), a famous Talmudist and commentator, his pupil Jacob ben Yaqar, and Moses of Narbonne, called ha-Darshan, the "Exegete," were the forerunners of the greatest of all Jewish commentators, Solomon ben Isaac (Rashi), who died at Troyes in 1105. Rashi was a pupil of Jacob ben Yaqar, and studied at Worms and Mainz. Unlike his contemporaries in Spain, he seems to have confined himself wholly to Jewish learning, and to have known nothing of Arabic or other languages except his native French. Yet no commentator is more valuable or indeed more voluminous, and for the study

Two different texts of it exist: (1) in the ed. pr. (Mantua, 1476); (2) ed. by Seb. Münster (Basel, 1541). There is also an early Arabic recension, but its relation to the Hebrew and to the Arabic 2 Maccabees is still obscure. See J. Q. R., xi. 355 sqq. The Hebrew text was edited with a Latin translation by Breithaupt (Gotha, 1707). On the various recensions of the text see D. H. Müller in the Denkschriften of the Vienna Academy (Phil.-hist. Cl., xli. I, p. 41) and Epstein's ed. (Pressburg, 1891).

A fragment of such a work, probably emanating from the school of Hivi. was found by Schechter and published in J.Q.R., xiii. 345 sqq.

be made of the travellers Benjamin of Tudela (d. after 1173), whose Massa'ōth are of great value for the history and geography of his time, and (though not belonging to Spain) Pethahiah of Regensburg (d. about 1190), who wrote short notes of his journeys. Abraham ben David, of Toledo (d. about 1180), in philosophy an Aristotelian (through Avicenna) and the precursor of Maimonides, is chiefly known for his Sepher haqabbalah, written as a polemic against Karaism, but valuable for the history of tradition.

Malmo nides.

The greatest of all medieval Jewish scholars was Moses ben Maimon (Rambam), called Maimonides by Christians. He was born at Cordova in 1135, fled with his parents from persecution in 1148, settled at Fez in 1160, passing there for a Moslem, fled again to Jerusalem in 1165, and finally went to Cairo where he died in 1204. He was distinguished in his profession as a physician, and wrote a number of medical works in Arabic (including a commentary on the aphorisms of Hippocrates), all of which were translated into Hebrew, and most of them into Latin, becoming the text-books of Europe in the succeeding centuries. But his fame rests mainly on his theological works. Passing over the less important, these are the Mōreh Nebhūkhim (so the Hebrew translation of the Arabic original), an endeavour to show philosophically the reasonableness of the faith, parts of which, translated into Latin, were studied by the Christian schoolmen, and the Mishneh Torah, also called Yad hahazaqah (14, the number of the parts), a classified compendium of the Law, written in Hebrew 4 See M. Friedländer in Publications of the Society of Hebrew Lit., Ist ser. vol. i., and 2nd ser. vol. iv.

a Talmudist, was an earnest promoter of kabbalistic studies. | ibn Shem Tōbh, the kabbalist, was a strong anti-Maimonist, Isaac ben Moses (d. about 1270), who had studied in France, as was his son Joseph of Castile (d. 1480), a commentator with wrote the famous Or Zarua' (from which he is often called), kabbalistic tendencies but versed in Aristotle, Averroes and an halakhic work somewhat resembling Maimonides' Mishneh Christian doctrine. Joseph's son Shem Tōbh was, on the contrary, Tōrah, but more diffuse. In the course of his wanderings he a follower of Maimonides and the Aristotelians. In other settled for a time at Würzburg, where he had as a pupil Me'ir subjects, Saadyah ibn Danān, of Granada (d. at Oran after 1473), of Rothenburg (d. 1293). The latter was a prolific writer of is chiefly important for his grammar and lexicon, in Arabic; great influence, chiefly known for his Responsa, but also for his Judah ibn Verga, of Seville (d. after 1480), was a mathematician halakhic treatises, hiddūshin and tōsaphōth. He also composed and astronomer; Solomon ibn Verga, somewhat later, wrote a number of piyyūtīm. Me'ir's pupil, Mordecai ben Hillel of Shebet Yehudah, of doubtful value historically; Abraham Nürnberg (d. 1298), had an even greater influence through his Zakkuth or Zakkuto, of Salamanca (d. after 1510), astronomer, halakhic work, usually known as the Mordekhai. This is a codi- wrote the Sepher Yuhasin, an historical work of importance. fication of halakhōth, based on all the authorities then known, In Italy, Obadiah Bertinoro (d. about 1500) compiled his very some of them now lost. Owing to the fact that the material useful commentary on the Mishnah, based on those of Rashi collected by Mordecai was left to his pupils to arrange, the work and Maimonides. His account of his travels and his letters are was current in two recensions, an Eastern (in Austria) and a also of great interest. Isaac Abravanel (d. 1508) wrote comWestern (in Germany, France, &c.). In the East, Tanhum ben mentaries (not of the first rank) on the Pentateuch and Prophets Joseph of Jerusalem was the author of commentaries (not to be and on the Moréh, philosophical treatises and apologetics, such as confounded with the Midrash Tanḥūmā) on many books of the the Yeshu'oth Meshiḥō, all of which had considerable influence. Bible, and of an extensive lexicon (Kitāb al-Murshid) to the Elijah Delmedigo, of Crete (d. 1497), a strong opponent of Mishnah, all in Arabic. Kabbalah, was the author of the philosophical treatise Beḥinath ha-dath, but most of his work (on Averroes) was in Latin.

With the 13th century Hebrew literature may be said to have reached the limit of its development. Later writers to a large extent used over again the materials of their predecessors, while secular works tend to be influenced by the surrounding civilization, or even are composed in the vernacular languages. From the 14th century onward only the most notable names can be mentioned. In Italy Immanuel ben Solomon, of Rome (d. about 1330), perhaps the friend and certainly the imitator of Dante, wrote his diwan, of which the last part, "Topheth ve-'Eden," is suggested by the Divina Commedia. In Spain Israel Israeli, of Toledo (d. 1326), was a translator and the author of an Arabic work on ritual and a commentary on Pirqë Abhōth. About the same time Isaac Israeli wrote his Yesōdh 'Olam and other astronomical works which were much studied. Asher ben Jehiel, | a pupil of Me'ir of Rothenburg, was the author of the popular Talmudic compendium, generally quoted as Rabbenu Asher, on the lines of Alfasi, besides other halakhic works. He migrated from Germany and settled at Toledo, where he died in 1328. His son Jacob, of Toledo (d. 1340), was the author of the Tür (or the four Tūrīm), a most important manual of Jewish law, serving as an abridgement of the Mishneh Torah brought up to date. His pupil David Abudrahim, of Seville (d. after 1340), | wrote a commentary on the liturgy. Both the 14th and 15th centuries in Spain were largely taken up with controversy, as by Isaac ibn Pulgar (about 1350), and Shem Tōbh ibn Shaprût (about 1380), who translated St Matthew's gospel into Hebrew. In France Jedaiah Bedersi, i.e. of Béziers (d. about 1340), wrote poems (Beḥinath ha-'ōlam), commentaries on agada and a defence of Maimonides against Solomon Adreth. Levi ben Gershom (d. 1344), called Ralbag, the great commentator on the Bible and Talmud, in philosophy a follower of Aristotle and Averroes, known to Christians as Leo Hebraeus, wrote also many works on halakhah, mathematics and astronomy. Joseph Kaspi, i.e. of Largentière (d. 1340), wrote a large number of treatises on grammar and philosophy (mystical), besides commentaries and piyyūțim. In the first half of the 14th century lived the two translators Qalonymos ben David and Qalonymos ben Qalonymos, the latter of whom translated many works of Galen and Averroes, and various scientific treatises, besides writing original works, e.g. one against Kaspi, and an ethical work entitled Eben Bohan. At the end of the century Isaac ben Moses, called Profiat Duran (Efodi), is chiefly known as an antiChristian controversialist (letter to Me'ir Alguadez), but also wrote on grammar (Ma'aseh Efod) and a commentary on the Mōreh. In philosophy he was an Aristotelian. About the same time in Spain controversy was very active. Hasdai Crescas (d. 1410) wrote against Christianity and in his Or Adonai against the Aristotelianism of the Maimonists. His pupil Joseph Albo in his 'Igqarim had the same two objects. On the side of the Maimonists was Simeon Duran (d. at Algiers 1444) in his Magen Abhōth and in his numerous commentaries. Shem Tōbh

Later writers.

The introduction of printing (first dated Hebrew printed book, Rashi, Reggio, 1475) gave occasion for a number of scholarly compositors and proof-readers, some of whom were also authors, such as Jacob ben Ḥayyim of Tunis (d. about 1530), proof-reader to Bomberg, chiefly known for his masoretic work in connexion with the Rabbinic Bible and his introduction to it; Elias Levita, of Venice (d. 1549), also proof-reader to Bomberg, author of the Massoreth haMassoreth and other works on grammar and lexicography; and Cornelius Adelkind, who however was not an author. In the East, Joseph Karo (Qärō) wrote his Bēth Yōseph (Venice, 1550), a commentary on the Tür, and his Shulḥan 'Arukh (Venice, 1564) an halakhic work like the Tür, which is still a standard authority. The influence of non-Jewish methods is seen in the more modern tendency of Azariah dei Rossi, who was opposed by Joseph Karo. In his Me'ōr 'Enayim (Mantua, 1573) Dei Rossi endeavoured to investigate Jewish history in a scientific spirit, with the aid of non-Jewish authorities, and even criticizes Talmudic and traditional statements. Another historian living also in Italy was Joseph ben Joshua, whose Dibhre ha-yamim (Venice, 1534) is a sort of history of the world, and his 'Emeq ha-bakhah an account of Jewish troubles to the year 1575. In Germany David Gans wrote on astronomy, and also the historical work Zemaḥ David (Prag, 1592). The study of Kabbalah was promoted and the practical Kabbalah founded by Isaac Luria in Palestine (d. 1572). Numerous works, representing the extreme of mysticism, were published by his pupils as the result of his teaching. Foremost among these was Hayyim Vital, author of the 'Ez hayyim, and his son Samuel, who wrote an introduction to the Kabbalah, called Shemoneh She'arim. To the same school belonged Moses Zakkuto, of Mantua (d. 1697), poet and kabbalist. Contemporary with Luria and also living at Safed, was Moses Cordovero (d. 1570), the kabbalist, whose chief work was the Pardes Rimmōnim (Cracow, 1591). In the 17th century Leon of Modena (d. 1648) wrote his Bēth Yehudah, and probably Qōl Sakhal, against traditionalism, besides many controversial works and commentaries. Joseph Delmedigo, of Prag (d. 1655), wrote almost entirely on scientific subjects. Also connected with Prag was Yom Tōbh Lipmann Heller, a voluminous author, best known for the Tōsaphōth Yöm Tōbk on the Mishna (Prag, 1614; Cracow, 1643). Another important Talmudist, Shabbethai ben Me'ir, of Wilna (d. 1662), commented on the Shulḥan 'Arükh. In the East, David Conforte (d. about 1685) wrote the historical work Qōrē ha-dōrōth (Venice, 1746), using Jewish and other sources; Jacob ben Ḥayyim Zemaḥ, kabbalist and student of Luria, wrote Qōl be-ramah, a commentary on the Zohar and on the liturgy; Abraham Hayekini, kabbalist, chiefly remembered as a supporter of the would-be Messiah, Shabbethai Zebhi, wrote Hōd Malkuth (Constantinople, 1655) and sermons. In the 18th century the study of the