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(d) Does he hesitate and have difficulty in making a sound (stammer), or does he repeat the sound unnecessarily (stutter)?

(e) of the sounds which we use in speech, with which does the faulty utterance occur?

Have the child pronounce slowly the following test sentences (repeating them if necessary) and note any substitutions or omissions of sounds represented by letters italicized:

1. I would ask you to beware the big bear.

2. You can purchase many things with pence and pounds.

3. The mice and men were making merry.

4. Whence do you come and whither do you go?

5. We wonder at your wisdom.

6. The farmer attended the fair and enjoyed the feast.

7. We think of many things to be thankful for.

8. We ran down the road that leads to the rear of the rose garden.

9. The train took us to town.

10. The man wore a vest when he planted the vine.

11. If five and four make nine, how many are four and five?

12. I believe this is a very good day to visit the zoo.

13. We will go down into the deep grass.

14. Can you keep a secret until I see you again?

15. Sometimes the sky is azure.

16. We assure you that we are insured.

17. The child is a cheerful companion.

18. Did you ever read the "Lady of the Lake"?

19. The boys ran because the lion roared.

20. You and your dog can come next year.

21. The cat ate up my cake.

22. Go and gather the flowers you have forgotten.

23. Did you say you went to the play?

24. The magician made a great deal of money.

25. We know the man has a new hat.

26. He was singing a song which we had never heard sung.

27. Have you heard that a bird in hand is better than a bird in a bush?

28. He has caught an eel.

29. Did you say you saw Marjory Daw?

30. What will you have from the mill?

31. Did you pay for the lace to-day?

32. You will have less time to rest.

33. Twinkle, twinkle, little star, how I wonder what you are.

34. She was careful of her fair skin.

35. The bat was lying on a sack in our attic.

36. Did you look in the book?

37. Has the child taken off his boots to cool his feet?

38. I hope you will write me a note about the coat.

39. Stop using the mop and play with the top.

40. This bird is the third we have owned.

41. They found the cause of the loud sound.

42. If you soil your clothes, it will cause the toil of washing them.

Substitutions are most frequently made for the following sounds: ch, d, f, g, k (or c), I, n, r, s, sh, sz, t, v, and zh.

In using these test sentences it may be found that mistakes of pronunciation are made other than with the special sounds which the sentence is intended to bring out. Mistakes with these sounds should be noted along with those made with the words especially intended to detect errors of speech. They will serve as a double check.

The following exercise with separate words can be used for a recheck on the pupil's utterance:

Th (silent)-Thick, thin, three, south, length.

Th (sounded)-Those, other, father, weather.
S (silent) Soon, class, school, lisp.

S (sounded)-Nose, daisy, was, easy.
R-Run, rain, tree, hear, bear.
P-Pear, piece, pour, pink.

B-Baby, beg, bunk, bog, lobster.

M-May, mark, melon, mine.

W-Way, wear, wick, work.

F-Fair, fear, fine, furry.

V-Vain, vender, vine, vixen.
Th-This, thistle, through, thrush.
Th (hard)-Then, there, those, thus.
N-Nay, knee, night, now.

T-Table, tea, tie, tow.

D-Day, deed, did, dice, dose.
L-Lay, lie, lee, low.

G (soft)--Ginger, George.

G (hard) Gave, give, gory, gun.

J-Jade, jibe, juice, justice.

Z-Zinc, Zebidee, zebra, zounds.

R-Race, rich, rice, ruse.

K-Kate, Katherine, kind, kindred.

C-Care, candy, cunning.

X-Wax, mix, minx.

Br-Brace, bright, brick, brook.

Tr-Train, tremble, trip, trouble.

Gr-Grapes, grief, grind, grumble.

St-Stayed, stand, stick, stump.

Pl-Play, please, ply, plunder.

Ch-Chair, cheer, chore, chub.
Sh-Shay, shine, show, shun.
SI-Slay, sleep, slide, slumber.

Ph-Phase, phone, physics.

Plenty of time should be taken especially by the inexperienced in determining the letters, or combination of letters, with which the child has difficulty. The tests can be repeated. There may be difficulty with more than one sound. Since some of the letters above have the same sound (as ph and f), if one is difficult the other will also cause trouble.

Correction of Defects

Faults of Substitution

Granted that there is no difficulty in starting sounds or in proceeding normally to the next sound (stammering and stuttering), the training of the speech-defective child can proceed about as follows:

(a) The child should be given a special physical examination to determine whether there is any evident physical condition which has to do with his defective pronunciation. This should include, of course, the examination of the nose and throat, the teeth, the palate, the movements of the tongue, the vision, and hearing. Any defects of importance should be removed or given thorough treatment. (b) General gymnastic training of the tongue and lips.-The tongue is the most important organ of pronunciation, and most of us would have better speech if we made more use of it. The following exercises for the tongue are recommended by Helen M. Peppard in her book, "The Correction of Speech Defects:"

1. Point the tongue outward and downward toward the chin.

2. Point the tongue outward and upward toward the nose, touching the nose if possible. 3. Wag the tip of the tongue up and down. In this exercise the tongue should be protruded between the lips. Turn the tip upward and then downward rapidly for eight counts.

4. Rotate the tongue around the outside of the mouth. (Suggest the idea of cleaning off the mouth after eating bread and jam.) Begin at the right corner of the mouth and start across the upper lip. Then begin at the left corner and go in the opposite direction.

5. Protrude the tongue and form a groove through the center by raising both sides. If the child has difficulty with this exercise let him place a clean stick on the center of his tongue and suck up the sides.

6. Curl the tip of the tongue back of the upper front teeth. The count is "up, down-up, down," etc. The mouth should remain open during the eight counts so that the tongue may perform the maximum amount of movement.

7. Press the tip of the tongue against the backs of the lower teeth. The command "press, let go," can be used. This exercise is particularly useful for the placing of the tongue for lispers. Many children do not make sufficient use of their lips in speaking. The fol lowing exercise will help to make inactive lips more flexible.

1. Protrude the lips in a puckered position.

2. Raise the upper lip exposing upper teeth. This can be accomplished by telling the student to wrinkle up his nose.

3. Raise right side of upper lip.

4. Raise left side of upper lip.

5. Pull down lower lip, exposing lower teeth.

The pupil should be supplied with a small hand mirror by means of which he can observe his own performances.

As in exercises of other parts of the body, these for the tongue and lips should not be overdone; strength and skill in the manipulation of these organs should be gradually acquired.

(c) Acquiring the right methods of sound production.--After we have determined the letters or syllables with the pronunciation of which there is difficulty and after we have removed as far as possible any organic defects which may exist,

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the special exercises for overcoming the wrong use of the speech organs can be begun.

Defective hearing (whether in the ear or in the brain) is responsible for much poor pronunciation. We do not pay sufficient attention to the sounds of letters or words when they are properly uttered. The pupil's attention must be called to the right sounds. Hence he must be told to listen attentively to correct pronunciation. The method of shaping the mouth for correct sound production should be shown as far as this is possible. This may need to be exaggerated to some extent in order to secure imitation by the pupil.

Although the knowledge of how to hold the hands and how to work the fingers will not make a good pianist, they are of some help. So also explanations as to the proper manipulations of lips and tongue may be of some use in teaching the production of good speech. The speech-correction teacher will need to use every device to secure right sound production, and even manipulation of the pupil's tongue or lips by means of a tongue depressor or special instrument has been resorted to in some cases. Patience and persistence will bring desired results. It must be remembered that an ounce of good example is worth a pound of talk.

Methods of Producing Sounds
Lip Sounds

P: P is prepared for by pursing the lips lightly together, forcing the breath against them and then suddenly opening them with a "puff." A vowel sound is usually attached to the puff.

B: B is pronounced with similar preparation; the lips are not pursed as much but the breath is emitted through a broader opening. A vowel sound is attached in speech.

Lip-Teeth Sounds

F: The breath is forced through the opening just as the lower lip is raised gently against the edges of the upper teeth and then withdrawn. When followed by a vowel the closure of the lips with the teeth is made first, the sound coming out as the lip is suddenly drawn down.

V: The letter is closely related to the preceding except that the sound is made only as the lower lip and upper teeth are separated. The lip is drawn slightly inward over the teeth.

Tongue Sounds

T: T is a tongue-roof-of-the-mouth burst of air introducing (in words) a vowel. The end of the tongue is placed broadly against the gums of the upper teeth (lips apart). The air is compressed in the mouth and let loose by suddenly removing the tongue from contact with the gums.

D: D is formed in much the same way, a slight change in the shape of the tongue as the air is expelled giving a heavier sound.

Th as in This. In pronouncing these letters F is usually substituted as "fink" for "think," but sometimes S is used instead of th, as "sink." The tongue is not

properly managed. This is a tongue-teeth sound. When correctly produced the tip of the tongue is placed between the teeth and the breath is forced through. S: This hissing sound is produced without first compressing the air, this being forced through the nearly closed teeth with the lips somewhat apart. The hollowed tongue is lifted near the gums of the upper teeth.

Z: This is formed as is the S, but the teeth are brought slightly closer together and the tip of the tongue is held lower.

Sh: This sound is produced much after the manner of S but with a broader opening (flatter tongue) between the tongue and gums. The lips are slightly protruded.

Ch: The tongue is placed flatly across the hard palate just above the upper gums and the air pressure is raised in the mouth. The tongue is then suddenly lowered and the air discharged. A similar sound accompanies a sneeze.

J: This sound is produced in a manner similar to the Ch, but with a slightly different manipulation of the tongue.

L: This is very much of a tongue sound. The tip of the tongue is lifted to the roof of the mouth and the upper gums, while the air is forced through the mouth on either side of the tongue.

R: The tip of the tongue is raised toward the hard palate, its base being depressed. The air is forced through the mouth above and about the tongue. Y: The lips are slightly protruded, the tongue is rounded, its tip being held loosely behind the lower teeth, and the air is forced through the lips, which are spread as they are retracted.

K and (hard C): The back of the tongue is raised against the soft palate and the air is suddenly forced through as the tongue is lowered.

G (hard): The sound is made similarly to K, the back being held somewhat lower.

Nasal Sounds

M: A column of air is forced through the nose. The lips are kept closed. N: The air is forced through the nose as above but the tip of the tongue is placed against the upper gums and the lips are kept open.

Ng: This sound is made in much the same manner as N except that the back of the tongue is raised against the soft palate.

H: The mouth is opened, the tongue lies loosely in its floor, and the air is forced through.

Vowel Sounds

A as in Ale: The lips are well apart; the teeth are well separated; the sides of the tongue touch lightly the back upper teeth.

A as in Air: The lips and teeth are further separated and the tongue is held a trifle lower.

A in Mat: The mouth is opened wider than for the preceding sound as the letter is uttered.

A in Mar: The mouth is opened still wider for this sound than for A in mat. A in Awe: The lips are pointed to make a rounded opening, the tip of the tongue is lowered into the floor of the mouth and its base is raised somewhat.

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