CAMP SANITATION.

By W. F. DRAPER,

Passed Assistant Surgeon, United States Public Health Service.

The term " camp" is ordinarily understood to apply to a simple place of abode, somewhat removed from other settlements, and more or less temporary in character. The number of persons which a camp may contain is limited only by its facilities for affording the ordinary requirements of existence.

By its very nature a camp is an independent unit, and every factor relating to the health and comfort of its occupants must receivə careful consideration. Unlike the dweller in a city or municipality, the camp dweller will find no system of waste disposal already at hand, nor will there be regulations prescribing the manner in which he shall conduct his affairs for the protection of his own health and that of his neighbors. It is essential, therefore, that persons concerned with the establishment of camps and those who live in them should have a definite knowledge of the principles of sanitation.

The Selection of a Camp Site.

The ground selected must afford good, natural drainage, such, for example, as the top of a low ridge, the summit of a knoll with gently sloping sides, or the high bank of a river. In the case of a large camp, care must be taken that the drainage will not pollute the grounds or water supplies of dwellings or settlements which may be in the vicinity. Low places and swamps should be avoided. The dampness renders them very uncomfortable and in warm weather they usually abound in mosquitoes.

Gravel and sand are excellent soils upon which to establish a camp, as the rain water sinks into the ground and the surface dries rapidly. Mixtures of sand, clay, and loam, while not so good as plain sand or gravel, are usually satisfactory. Clay is perhaps the least desirable constituent of soil for camp purposes. It absorbs and holds a great deal of moisture, which is only slowly given up by evaporation, and is especially disagreeable after a rain.

Trees are highly desirable about a camp, as they afford protection from the sun and wind and are cooling in summer. The foliage should not be so dense as completely to exclude the rays of the sun, for under these conditions the ground may remain moist and the

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camp structures may become damp and unhealthful. All underbrush should be thoroughly cleared away from the camp site because in the presence of moisture it affords breeding places for mosquitoes and also gives them protection in their flights. Grass on the camp grounds, when kept closely cut, prevents the washing and gutting of the soil by rains, does not reflect the glare and heat of the sun, and aids in the prevention of mud and dust.

Camp Structures.

Although many different types of camp structures are in use, the tent is perhaps the most common form of shelter. Tents are usually arranged in rows and the space between the tents should be about one and one-half times the width of each tent in order that light and air may have free access.

Ditches should be dug around each tent in order that the floors may be kept dry in wet weather. The sides of the tents should be fastened up during the day when the weather permits so that the sun and air may reach every part of the interior.

The question of the exact number of persons which may properly be assigned to a given space is difficult to answer. As the result of many observations of camps and with a knowledge of the economic problems with which they are confronted the conclusion has been reached that an allowance of 20 square feet of floor space and a distance of 2 feet between each single bed or bunk are the least that can be provided without serious overcrowding. The separation of the beds and economy of floor space may be obtained by the use of double-deck bunks.

Ventilation must be insured by leaving the door flaps, or the sides, or both, open. Tents receive a considerable amount of air through the pores of the canvas; but when the temperature of the inside and outside air is about the same, and in wet weather, when the pores become closed by the contracting canvas, the ventilation may be bad, and openings in the ridge should always be provided.

In places where mosquitoes are numerous the screening of the tents may be necessary. Mosquito bars over the beds, or head nets and gloves may be used.

Beds and bedding should be inspected at regular intervals to insure cleanliness and freedom from vermin. All bedding should be placed out of doors in the sun and air all day at least once a week.

Mess Tent and Cook Tent.

Scrupulous cleanliness should be observed in the cook tent and mess tent and by those engaged in the preparation of the food. Whenever possible, these structures should be screened against flies,

and in cases where this can not be done the food should be protected from fly contamination by means of screened cupboards or covers made from wire mesh. Personal cleanliness is of the greatest importance in the case of those who come in contact with the food, and adequate facilities for washing the hands should be provided. Cooks and waiters should be furnished with white caps and aprons which may be laundered when soiled. The ordinary clothing may come in contact with all sorts of camp wastes and should not be worn during the preparation of the food unless covered with a clean apron.

Water Supply.

Water supplies for camps are generally derived from springs, streams, lakes, or wells.

Although occurring pure in nature, springs may be readily polluted and made unfit for use. The contents of privies, stables, and hog pens may be washed over the surface of the ground by rains and so pollute the spring. Laundry wastes, bath wastes, or filthy material of any kind, if deposited on the surface of the ground near a spring, may carry disease germs into the water. It is of the utmost importance, therefore, that the surroundings of a spring should be kept scrupulously clean, and that no wastes of any sort should be thrown upon the ground.

It frequently happens that spring water is neither sufficient in quantity nor convenient enough in location to furnish a supply for purposes other than drinking and cooking. In such cases additional water is often obtained from other sources. such as rivers or streams, thus creating a double water supply.

When a camp is supplied with a safe water for drinking and cooking purposes, and an unsafe or unknown water for general camp use, certain dangers arise. Many persons are absolutely thoughtless in regard to the water which they drink, and an inferior water, if a little more convenient, will be readily used. Then, too, kitchen help are frequently found to have no very clear understanding as to what extent a doubtful water may be used for cooking purposes and dishwashing. Harmful organisms are killed by boiling, but not all the water used in the preparation of food is sure to reach the boiling point, and much of the water used in washing dishes never boils. The use of a doubtful water, therefore, in the preparation of food or for dishwashing is extremely dangerous, and even its presence in or about the kitchen and eating quarters is very unsafe.

Disinfection of Water Supplies.

Bleaching powder, also known as chloride of lime, chlorinated lime, and hypochlorite, is an efficient and inexpensive disinfectant

and should be applied to all doubtful water at a camp regardless of the purposes for which such water is used. In the quantities for which it is generally employed for the purification of water for drinking purposes it is harmless in its effect upon the human body, and its taste is almost imperceptible.

Bleaching powder rapidly loses its strength when exposed to the air, and great care must be used to keep it tightly covered in airtight containers.

Directions for the use of bleaching powder in the purification of water for drinking purposes are given on page 34.

Sewage Disposal.

Human excreta must be disposed of in such a way that it will be prevented from dangerously polluting the soil, contaminating water supplies, or furnishing a breeding or feeding place for flies.

The covered can shown on page 38 is a simple means of keeping conditions sanitary. One quart of compound cresol solution (see p. 104) added to 7 quarts of sewage will keep down the odor and destroy disease germs.

When the foregoing instructions are carried out the toilet facilities may be located at any convenient place about the camp, but it is preferable to have them at least 50 feet distant from the eating and sleeping quarters.

Final Disposal of Contents of Can.

As most camps in which such a system of sewage disposal is desirable are located in sparsely populated districts with plenty of vacant land surrounding them, disposal of the excreta by burial may, as a rule, be accomplished satisfactorily. The place selected for the burial should be at least 100 yards away from the water supply, and should not drain toward it.

As the natural agencies of purification are present in the greatest numbers in the upper layers of the soil it is better that excreta should be given shallow burial rather than be thrown into deep pits. The deeper the pit in which it is placed the greater is the danger of polluting underground water supplies.

Instead of the large pits which are frequently found at camps, shallow furrows or trenches should be dug. They should be from 6 to 12 inches deep and the excreta should be scattered along in a layer about 2 inches thick and immediately covered with 6 to 12 inches of earth.

Garbage Disposal.

Covered metal cans should be provided for garbage. The wooden pails, buckets, and barrels so frequently used at camps are unsuitable

containers. They are seldom provided with covers and are difficult to clean. They swell and warp, allowing the liquid portions of the garbage to leak through and saturate the surrounding ground and rapidly go to pieces, often falling apart in the process of dumping.

A metal garbage can of suitable size and with a tight fitting cover can be purchased at almost any hardware store for a sum not exceeding one dollar. Such a receptacle is water-tight and very serviceable; when kept covered it remains free from flies and does not give off disagreeable odors.

Garbage cans should be washed out and scalded with boiling hot water at frequent intervals to prevent them from becoming unnecessarily foul. Moisture is the immediate cause of the souring of garbage, therefore the drier it is the longer it can be kept without being a nuisance. If garbage is drained and then wrapped in paper before being placed in the can it will not smell in hot weather nor freeze and stick to the can in cold weather. The can will not become dirty and will not require emptying more than once or twice a week.

Destruction of both liquid and solid garbage wastes by fire is far preferable to any other means of disposal and gives absolute security.

A very simple type of incinerator may be constructed by digging a trench 5 feet long, 24 feet wide, 6 inches deep at one end and 12 inches deep at the other. The trench is then filled with field stones, upon which the fire is built, and the excavated earth is banked about the sides. After the stones have become thoroughly heated, liquid wastes are poured into the trench at the shallow end. They come into contact with the hot stones at the bottom and are evaporated without destroying the fire. The solid wastes are placed on the fire where they soon dry out and burn as fuel.

If stones are not available tin cans may be substituted and used repeatedly. When neither stones nor cans are at hand a fire made in a trench of this character will destroy a considerable amount of garbage, both liquid and solid, but it is better to use stones or cans whenever possible.

Suppression of Flies.

In many camps flies are present in such numbers as to be a veritable scourge, and the screening of kitchens and mess rooms is frequently unsuccessful because of the overwhelming odds against it.

The favorite breeding places of common flies is in horse manure. Flies also breed in human filth, a fact which makes them especially dangerous to health of human beings. Even in camps where no horses are kept and where the excreta is properly disposed of flies may sometimes be found in large numbers. In such cases there may be neighboring stables and barns which furnish their quota of flies, or they may be found breeding in decaying vegetable or animal