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at Bromley, Kent, where he and his wife had kept a school. | becoming very acute, and when Hawkins sailed for the third Hawkesworth was a close imitator of Johnson both in style and time in 1567, he went in fact, though not technically, on a thought, and was at one time on very friendly terms with him. national venture. Again he kidnapped negroes, and forced his It is said that he presumed on his success, and lost Johnson's goods on the Spanish colonies. Encouraged by his discovery friendship as early as 1756. that these settlements were small and unfortified, he on this occasion ventured to enter Vera Cruz, the port of Mexico, after capturing some Spaniards at sea to be held as hostages. He alleged that he had been driven in by bad weather. The falsity of the story was glaring, but the Spanish officers on the spot were too weak to offer resistance. Hawkins was allowed to enter the harbour, and to refit at the small rocky island of San Juan de Ulloa by which it is formed. Unfortunately for him, and for a French corsair whom he had in his company, a strong Spanish force arrived, bringing the new viceroy. The Spaniards, who were no more scrupulous of the truth than himself, pretended to accept the arrangement made before their arrival, and then when they thought he was off his guard attacked him on the 24th of September. Only two vessels escaped, his own, the "Minion," and the "Judith," a small vessel belonging to his cousin Francis Drake. The voyage home was miserable, and the sufferings of all were great.

HAWKHURST, a town in the southern parliamentary division of Kent, England, 47 m. S.E. of London, on a branch of the South-Eastern & Chatham railway. Pop. (1901), 3136. It lies mainly on a ridge above the valley of the Kent Ditch, a tributary of the Rother. The neighbouring country is hilly, rich and well wooded, and the pleasant and healthy situation has led to the considerable extension of the old village as a residential locality. The Kent Sanatorium and one of the Barnardo homes are established here. The church of St Lawrence, founded from Battle Abbey in Sussex, is Decorated and Perpendicular and its east window, of the earlier period, is specially beautiful.

HAWKINS, CAESAR HENRY (1798-1884), British surgeon, son of the Rev. E. Hawkins and grandson of the Sir Caesar Hawkins (1711-1786), who was serjeant-surgeon to Kings George II. and George III., was born at Bisley, Gloucestershire, on the 19th of September 1798, was educated at Christ's Hospital, and entered St George's Hospital, London, in 1818. He was surgeon to the hospital from 1829 to 1861, and in 1862 was made serjeant-surgeon to Queen Victoria. He was president of the College of Surgeons in 1852, and again in 1861; and he delivered the Hunterian oration in 1849. His success in complex surgical cases gave him a great reputation. For long he was noted as the only surgeon who had succeeded in the operation of ovariotomy in a London hospital. This occurred in 1846, when anaesthetics were unknown. He did much to popularize colotomy. A successful operator, he nevertheless was attached to conservative surgery, and was always more anxious to teach his pupils how to save a limb than how to remove it. He reprinted his contributions to the medical journals in two volumes, 1874, the more valuable papers being on Tumours, Excision of the Ovarium, Hydrophobia and Snake-bites, Stricture of the Colon, and The Relative Claims of Sir Charles Bell and Magendie to the Discovery of the Functions of the Spinal Nerves. He died on the 20th of July 1884. His brother, Edward Hawkins (1789-1882), was the well-known provost of Oriel, Oxford, who played so great a part in the Tractarian movement.

HAWKINS, or HAWKYNS, SIR JOHN (1532-1595), British admiral, was born at Plymouth in 1532, and belonged to a family of Devonshire shipowners and skippers-occupations then more closely connected than is now usual. His father, William Hawkins (d. 1553), was a prosperous freeman of Plymouth, who thrice represented that town in parliament, and is described by Hakluyt as one of the principal sea-captains in the west parts of England; his elder brother, also called William (d. 1589), was closely associated with him in his Spanish expeditions, and took an active part in fitting out ships to meet the Armada; and his nephew, the eldest son of the last named and of the same name, sailed with Sir Francis Drake to the South Sea in 1577, and served as lieutenant under Edward Fenton (q.v.) in the expedition which started for the East Indies and China in 1582. His son, Sir Richard Hawkins, is separately noticed.

Sir John Hawkins was bred to the sea in the ships of his family. When the great epoch of Elizabethan maritime adventure began, he took an active part by sailing to the Guinea coast, where he robbed the Portuguese slavers, and then smuggled the negroes he had captured into the Spanish possessions in the New World. After a first successful voyage in 1562-1563, two vessels which he had rashly sent to Seville were confiscated by the Spanish government. With the help of friends, and the open approval of the queen, who hired one of her vessels to him, he sailed again in 1564, and repeated his voyage with success, trading with the Creoles by force when the officials of the king endeavoured to prevent him. These two voyages brought him reputation, and he was granted a coat of arms with a demi-Moor, or negro, chained, as his crest. The rivalry with Spain was now

For some years Hawkins did not return to the sea, though he continued to be interested in privateering voyages as a capitalist. In the course of 1572 he recovered part of his loss by pretending to betray the queen for a bribe to Spain. He acted with the knowledge of Lord Burleigh. In 1573 he became treasurer of the navy in succession to his father-in-law Benjamin Gonson. The office of comptroller was conferred on him soon after, and for the rest of his life he remained the principal administrative officer of the navy. Burleigh noted that he was suspected of fraud in his office, but the queen's ships were kept by him in good condition. In 1588 he served as rear-admiral against the Spanish Armada and was knighted. In 1590 he was sent to the coast of Portugal to intercept the Spanish treasure fleet, but did not meet it. In giving an account of his failure to the queen he quoted the text "Paul doth plant, Apollo doth water, but God giveth the increase," which exhibition of piety is said to have provoked the queen into exclaiming, God's death! This fool went out a soldier, and has come home a divine." In 1595 he accompanied Drake on another treasure-hunting voyage to the West Indies, which was even less successful, and he died at sea off Porto Rico on the 12th of November 1595.

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Hawkins was twice married, first to Katharine Gonson and then to Margaret Vaughan. He was counted a puritan when puritanism meant little beyond hatred of Spain and popery, and when these principles were an ever-ready excuse for voyages in search of slaves and plunder. In the course of one of his voyages, when he was becalmed and his negroes were dying, he consoled himself by the reflection that God would not suffer His elect to perish. Contemporary evidence can be produced to show that he was greedy, unscrupulous and rude. But if he had been a more delicate man he would not have risked the gallows by making piratical attacks on the Portuguese and by appearing in the West Indies as an armed smuggler; and in that case he would not have played an important part in history by setting the example of breaking down the pretension of the Spaniards to exclude all comers from the New World. His morality was that of the average stirring man of his time, whether in England or elsewhere.

See R. A. J. Walling, A Sea-dog of Devon (1907); and Southey in his British Admirals, vol. iii. The original accounts of his voyages compiled by Hakluyt have been reprinted by the Hakluyt Society, with a preface by Sir C. R. Markham.

HAWKINS, SIR JOHN (1719–1789), English writer on music, was born on the 30th of March 1719, in London, the son of an architect who destined him for his own profession. Ultimately, however, Hawkins took to the law, devoting his leisure hours to his favourite study of music. A wealthy marriage in 1753 enabled him to indulge his passion for acquiring rare works of music, and he bought, for example, the collection formed by Dr Pepusch, and subsequently presented by Hawkins to the British Museum. It was on such materials that Hawkins

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HAWKINS, SIR R.-HAWKSHAW

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founded his celebrated work on the General History of the Science | and graduated at the university of his nativ
and Practice of Music, in 5 vols. (republished in 2 vols., 1876).
It was brought out in 1776, the same year which witnessed the
appearance of the first volume of Burney's work on the same
subject. The relative merits of the two works were eagerly
discussed by contemporary critics. Burney no doubt is in-
finitely superior as a literary man, and his work accordingly
comes much nearer the idea of a systematic treatise on the
subject than Hawkins's, which is essentially a collection of rare
and valuable pieces of music with a more or less continuous
commentary. But by rescuing these from oblivion Hawkins has
given a permanent value to his work. Of Hawkins's literary
efforts apart from music it will be sufficient to mention his
occasional contributions to the Gentleman's Magazine, his
edition (1760) of the Complete Angler (1787) and his biography
of Dr Johnson, with whom he was intimately acquainted.
He was one of the original members of the Ivy Lane Club, and
ultimately became one of Dr Johnson's executors. If there were
any doubt as to his intimacy with Johnson, it would be settled
by the slighting way in which Boswell refers to him. Speaking
of the Ivy Lane Club, he mentions amongst the members " Mr
John Hawkins, an attorney," and adds the following footnote,
which at the same time may serve as a summary of the remaining
facts of Hawkins's life: He was for several years chairman
of the Middlesex justices, and upon presenting an address to
the king accepted the usual offer of knighthood (1772). He
is the author of a History of Music in five volumes in quarto.
By assiduous attendance upon Johnson in his last illness he
obtained the office of one of his executors-in consequence of
which the booksellers of London employed him to publish an
edition of Dr Johnson's works and to write his life." Sir John
Hawkins died on the 21st of May 1789, and was buried in the
cloisters of Westminster Abbey.

After practising law with some distinction h
Episcopalian ministry in 1827 and proved a bril
pressive preacher, holding livings in New Haven,
New York and New Orleans, and declining several
On his appointment as historiographer of his church in 1835,
he went to England, and collected the abundant materials
afterwards utilized in his Contributions to the Ecclesiastical
History of U.S.A. (New York, 1836-1839). These two volumes
dealt with Maryland and Virginia, while two later ones (1863-
1864) were devoted to Connecticut. He was the first president
of the university of Louisiana (now merged in Tulane). He
died in New York on the 26th of September 1866.

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HAWKINS, or HAWKYNS, SIR RICHARD (c. 1562–1622), British seaman, was the only son of Admiral Sir John Hawkins (q.v.) by his first marriage. He was from his earliest days familiar with ships and the sea, and in 1582 he accompanied his uncle, William Hawkins, to the West Indies. In 1585 he was captain of a galliot in Drake's expedition to the Spanish main, in 1588 he commanded a queen's ship against the Armada, and in 1590 served with his father's expedition to the coast of Portugal. In 1593 he purchased the "Dainty," a ship originally built for his father and used by him in his expeditions, and sailed for the West Indies, the Spanish main and the South Seas.

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clear that his project was to prey on the oversea possessions of the king of Spain. Hawkins, however, in an account of the voyage written thirty years afterwards, maintained, and by that time perhaps had really persuaded himself, that his expedition was undertaken purely for the purpose of geographical discovery. After visiting the coast of Brazil, the "Dainty " passed through the Straits of Magellan, and in due course reached Valparaiso. Having plundered the town, Hawkins pushed north, and in June 1594, a year after leaving Plymouth, arrived in the bay of San Mateo. Here the "Dainty" was attacked by two Spanish ships. Hawkins was hopelessly outmatched, but defended himself with great courage. At last, when he himself had been severely wounded, many of his men killed, and the "Dainty" was nearly sinking, he surrendered on the promise of a safe-conduct out of the country for himself and his crew. Through no fault of the Spanish commander this promise was not kept. In 1597 Hawkins was sent to Spain, and imprisoned first at Seville and subsequently at Madrid. He was released in 1602, and, returning to England, was knighted in 1603. In 1604 he became member of parliament for Plymouth and vice-admiral of Devon, a post which, as the coast was swarming with pirates, was no sinecure. In 1620-1621 he was vice-admiral, under Sir Robert Mansell, of the fleet sent into the Mediterranean to reduce the Algerian corsairs. He died in London on the 17th of April 1622.

See his Observations in his Voiage into the South Sea (1622), republished by the Hakluyt Society.

HAWKS, FRANCIS LISTER (1798–1866), American clergyman, was born at Newbern, North Carolina, on the 10th of June 1798,

HAWKSHAW, SIR JOHN (1811-1891), English engineer, was born in Yorkshire in 1811, and was educated at Leeds grammar school. Before he was twenty-one he had been engaged for six or seven years in railway engineering and the construction of roads in his native county, and in the year of his majority he obtained an appointment as engineer to the Bolivar Mining Association in Venezuela. But the climate there was more than his health could stand, and in 1834 he was obliged to return to England. He soon obtained employment under Jesse Hartley at the Liverpool docks, and subsequently was made engineer in charge of the railway and navigation works of the Manchester, Bury and Bolton Canal Company. In 1845 he became chief engineer to the Manchester & Leeds railway, and in 1847 to its successor, the Lancashire & Yorkshire railway, for which he constructed a large number of branch lines. In 1850 he removed to London and began to practise as a consulting engineer, at first alone, but subsequently in partnership with Harrison Hayter. In that capacity his work was of an extremely varied nature, embracing almost every branch of engineering. He retained his connexion with the Lancashire & Yorkshire Company until his retirement from professional work in 1888, and was consulted on all the important engineering points that affected it in that long period. In London he was responsible for the Charing Cross and Cannon Street railways, together with the two bridges which carried them over the Thames; he was engineer of the East London railway, which passes under the Thames through Sir M. L Brunel's well-known tunnel; and jointly with Sir J. Wolfe Barry he constructed the section of the Underground railway which completed the "inner circle" between the Aldgate and Mansion House stations. In addition, many railway works claimed his attention in all parts of the world-Germany, Russia, India, Mauritius, &c. One noteworthy point in his railway practice was his advocacy, in opposition to Robert Stephenson, of steeper gradients than had previously been thought desirable or possible, and so far back as 1838 he expressed decided disapproval of the maintenance of the broad gauge on the Great Western, because of the troubles he foresaw it would lead to in connexion with future railway extension, and because he objected in general to breaks of gauge in the lines of a country. The construction of canals was another branch of engineering in which he was actively engaged. In 1862 he became engineer of the Amsterdam ship-canal, and in the succeeding year he may fairly be said to have been the saviour of the Suez Canal. About that time the scheme was in very bad odour, and the khedive determined to get the opinion of an English engineer as to its practicability, having made up his mind to stop the works if that opinion was unfavourable. Hawkshaw was chosen to make the inquiry, and it was because his report was entirely favourable that M. de Lesseps was able to say at the opening ceremony that to him he owed the canal. As a member of the International Congress which considered the construction of an interoceanic canal across central America, he thought best of the Nicaraguan route, and privately he regarded the Panama scheme as impracticable at a reasonable cost, although publicly he expressed no opinion on the matter and left the Congress without voting. Sir John Hawkshaw also had a wide experience in constructing harbours (e.g. Holyhead) and docks (e.g. Penarth, the Albert Dock at Hull, and the south dock of the East and West India Docks in London), in river-engineering, in drainage and sewerage,

in water-supply, &c. He was engineer, with Sir James Brunlees, | the time or place at which he won it. On the peace of Bretigny of the original Channel Tunnel Company from 1872, but many in 1360, he collected a band of men-at-arms, and moved southyears previously he had investigated for himsself the question of ward to Italy, where we find the White Company, as his men a tunnel under the Strait of Dover from an engineering point of were called, assisting the marquis of Monferrato against Milan view, and had come to a belief in its feasibility, so far as that in 1362-63, and the Pisans against Florence in 1364. After could be determined from borings and surveys. Subsequently, several campaigns in various parts of central Italy, Hawkwood however, he became convinced that the tunnel would not be to in 1368 entered the service of Bernabò Visconti. In 1369 he the advantage of Great Britain, and thereafter would have fought for Perugia against the pope, and in 1370 for the Visconti nothing to do with the project. He was also engineer of the against Pisa, Florence and other enemies. In 1372 he defeated Severn Tunnel, which, from its magnitude and the difficulties the marquis of Monferrato, but soon afterwards, resenting the encountered in its construction, must rank as one of the most interference of a council of war with his plans, Hawkwood notable engineering undertakings of the 19th century. He died resigned his command, and the White Company passed into the in London on the 2nd of June 1891. papal service, in which he fought against the Visconti in 13731375. In 1375 the Florentines entered into an agreement with him, by which they were to pay him and his companion 130,000 gold florins in three months on condition that he undertook no engagement against them; and in the same year the priors of the arts and the gonfalonier decided to give him a pension of 1200 florins per annum for as long as he should remain in Italy. In 1377, under the orders of the cardinal Robert of Geneva, legate of Bologna, he massacred the inhabitants of Cesena, but in May of the same year, disliking the executioner's work put upon him by the legate, he joined the anti-papal league, and married, at Milan, Donnina, an illegitimate daughter of Bernabò Visconti. In 1378 and 1379 Hawkwood was constantly in the field; he quarrelled with Bernabò in 1378, and entered the service of Florence, receiving, as in 1375, 130,000 gold florins. He rendered good service to the republic up to 1382, when for a time he was one of the English ambassadors at the papal court. He engaged in a brief campaign in Naples in 1383, fought for the marquis of Padua against Verona in 1386, and in 1388 made an unsuccessful effort against Gian Galeazzo Visconti, who had murdered Bernabò. In 1390 the Florentines took up the war against Gian Galeazzo in earnest, and appointed Hawkwood commander-in-chief. His campaign against the Milanese army in the Veronese and the Bergamask was reckoned a triumph of generalship, and in 1392 Florence exacted a satisfactory peace from Gian Galeazzo. His latter years were spent in a villa in the neighbourhood of Florence. On his death in 1394 the republic gave him a public funeral of great magnificence, and decreed the erection of a marble monument in the cathedral. This, however, was never executed; but Paolo Uccelli painted his portrait in terre-verte on the inner façade of the building, where it still remains, though damaged by removal from the plaster to canvas. Richard II. of England, probably at the instigation of Hawkwood's sons, who returned to their native country, requested the Florentines to let him remove the good knight's bones, and the Florentine government signified its consent.

HAWKSLEY, THOMAS (1807-1893), English engineer, was born on the 12th of July 1807, at Arnold, near Nottingham. He was at Nottingham grammar school till the age of fifteen, but was indebted to his private studies for his knowledge of mathematics, chemistry and geology. In 1822 he was articled to an architect in Nottingham, subsequently becoming a partner in the firm, which also undertook engineering work; and in 1852 he removed to London, where he continued in active practice till he was well past eighty. His work was chiefly concerned with water and gas supply and with main-drainage. Of waterOf waterworks he used to say that he had constructed 150, and a long list might be drawn up of important towns that owe their water to his skill, including Liverpool, Sheffield, Leicester, Leeds, Derby, Darlington, Oxford, Cambridge and Northampton in England, and Stockholm, Altona and Bridgetown (Barbados) in other countries. To his native town of Nottingham he was water engineer for fifty years, and the system he designed for it was noteworthy from the fact that the principle of constant supply was adopted for the first time. The gas-works at Nottingham, and at many other towns for which he provided water supplies were also constructed by him. He designed maindrainage systems for Birmingham, Worcester and Windsor among other places, and in 1857 he was called in, together with G. P. Bidder and Sir J. Bazalgette, to report on the best solution of the vexed question of a main-drainage scheme for London. In 1872 he was president of the Institution of Civil Engineers-an office in which his son Charles followed him in 1901. He died in London on the 23rd of September 1893.

HAWKSMOOR, NICHOLAS (1661-1736), English architect, of Nottinghamshire birth, became a pupil of Sir Christopher Wren at the age of eighteen, and his name is intimately associated with those of Wren and Sir J. Vanbrugh in the English architecture of his time. Through Wren's influence he obtained various official posts, as deputy-surveyor at Chelsea hospital, clerk of the works and deputy-surveyor at Greenwich hospital, clerk of the works at Whitehall, St James's and Westminster, and he succeeded Wren as surveyor-general of Westminster Abbey. He took part in much of the work done by Wren and Vanbrugh, and it is difficult often to assign among them the credit for the designs of various features. Hawksmoor appears, however, to have been responsible for the early Gothic designs of the two towers of All Souls' (Oxford) north quadrangle, and the library and other features at Queen's College (Oxford). At the close of Queen Anne's reign he had a principal part in the scheme for building fifty new churches in London, and himself designed five or six of them, including St Mary Woolnoth (1716-1719) and St George's, Bloomsbury (1720-1730). A number of his drawings have been preserved. He died in London on the 25th of March 1736.

HAWKWOOD, SIR JOHN (d. 1394), an English adventurer who attained great wealth and renown as a condottiere in the Italian wars of the 14th century. His name is variously spelt as Haccoude, Aucud, Aguto, &c., by contemporaries. It is said that he was the son of a tanner of Hedingham Sibil in Essex, and was apprenticed in London, whence he went, in the English army, to France under Edward III. and the Black Prince. It is said also that he obtained the favour of the Black Prince, and received knighthood from King Edward III., but though it is certain that he was of knightly rank, there is no evidence as to

Of his children by Donnina Visconti, who appears to have been his second wife, the eldest daughter married Count Brezaglia of Porciglia, podestá of Ferrara, who succeeded him as Florentine commander-in-chief, and another a German condottiere named Conrad Prospergh. His son, John, returned to England and settled at Hedingham Sibil, where, it is supposed, Sir John Hawkwood was buried. The children of the first marriage were two sons and three daughters, and of the latter the youngest married John Shelley, an ancestor of the poet.

AUTHORITIES.-Muratori, Rerum Italicarum scriptores, and supplement by Tartinius and Manni; Archivio storico italiano; TempleLeader and Marcotti, Giovanni Acuto (Florence, 1889; Eng. transl., Leader Scott, London, 1889); Nichol, Bibliotheca topographica Britannica, vol. vi.; J. G. Alger in Register and Magazine of Biography, v. I.; and article in Dict. Nat. Biog.

HAWLEY, HENRY (c. 1679-1759), British lieut.-general, entered the army, it is said, in 1694. He saw service in the War of Spanish Succession as a captain of Erle's (the 19th) foot. After Almanza he returned to England, and a few years later had become lieut.-colonel of the 19th. With this regiment he served at Sheriffmuir in 1715, where he was wounded. After this for some years he served in the United Kingdom, obtaining promotion in the usual course, and in 1739 he arrived at the grade of major general. Four years later he accompanied Geroge II.

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and Stair to Germany, and, as a general officer of cavalry | hals, neck, of which there is a Scandinavian use under Sir John Cope, was present at Dettingen. Becoming the forepart of a ship; the two words are not、 lieut.-general somewhat later, he was second-in-command of connected; hawser is from an O. Fr. haucier, the cavalry at Fontenoy, and on the 20th of December 1745| raise, tow, hoist, from the Late Lat. altiare, to lift, became commander-in-chief in Scotland. Less than a month a small cable or thick rope used at sea for the purposes later Hawley suffered a severe defeat at Falkirk at the hands of or warping, in the case of large vessels made of steel. the Highland insurgents. This, however, did not cost him his cable or tow line is made of three or more small ropes it is said command, for the duke of Cumberland, who was soon afterwards to be "hawser-laid." The "hawse" of a ship is that part of the sent north, was captain-general. Under Cumberland's orders bows where the "hawse-holes are made. These are two holes Hawley led the cavalry in the campaign of Culloden, and at that cut in the bows of a vessel for the cables to pass through, having battle his dragoons distinguished themselves by their ruthless small cast-iron pipes, called "hawse-pipes," fitted into them to butchery of the fugitive rebels. After the end of the "Forty- prevent abrasion. In bad weather at sea these holes are plugged Five " he accompanied Cumberland to the Low Countries and led up with "hawse-plugs" to prevent the water entering. The the allied cavalry at Lauffeld (Val). He ended his career as phrase to enter the service by the "hawse-holes" is used of governor of Portsmouth and died at that place in 1759. James those who have risen from before the mast to commissioned Wolfe, his brigade-major, wrote of General Hawley in no flattering rank in the navy. When the ship is at anchor the space between terms. "The troops dread his severity, hate the man and hold her head and the anchor is called "hawse," as in the phrase his military knowledge in contempt," he wrote. But, whether it athwart the hawse." The term also applies to the position be true or false that he was the natural son of George II., Hawley of the ship's anchors when moored; when they are laid out in a was always treated with the greatest favour by that king and line at right angles to the wind it is said to be moored with an by his son the duke of Cumberland. 'open hawse"; when both cables are laid out straight to their anchors without crossing, it is a "clear hawse.”

HAWLEY, JOSEPH ROSWELL (1826-1905), American political leader, was born on the 31st of October at Stewartsville, Richmond county, North Carolina, where his father, a native of Connecticut, was pastor of a Baptist church. The father returned to Connecticut in 1837 and the son graduated at Hamilton College (Clinton, N.Y.)in 1847. He was admitted to the bar in 1850, and practised at Hartford, Conn., for six years. An ardent opponent of slavery, he became a Free Soiler, was a delegate to the National Convention which nominated John P. Hale for the presidency in 1852, and subsequently served as chairman of the State Committee, having at the same time editorial control of the Charter Oak, the party organ. In 1856 he took a leading part in organizing the Republican party in Connecticut, and in 1857 became editor of the Hartford Evening Press, a newly established Republican newspaper. He served in the Federal army throughout the Civil War, rising from the rank of captain (April 22, 1861) to that of brigadier-general of volunteers (Sept. 1864); took part in the Port Royal Expedition, in the capture of Fort Pulaski (April 1862), in the siege of Charleston and the capture of Fort Wagner (Sept. 1863), in the battle of Olustee (Feb. 20, 1864), in the siege operations about Petersburg, and in General W. T. Sherman's campaign in the Carolinas; and in September 1865 received the brevet of major-general of volunteers. From April 1866 to April 1867 he was governor of Connecticut, and in 1867 he bought the Hartford Courant, with which he combined the Press, and which became under his editorship the most influential newspaper in Connecticut and one of the leading Republican papers in the country. He was the permanent chairman of the Republican National Convention in 1868, was a delegate to the conventions of 1872, 1876 and 1880, was a member of Congress from December 1872 until March 1875 and again in 1879-1881, and was a United States senator from 1881 until the 3rd of March 1905, being one of the Republican leaders both in the House and the Senate. From 1873 to 1876 he was president of the United States Centennial Commission, the great success of the Centennial Exhibition being largely due to him. He died at Washington, D.C., on the 17th of March 1905.

HAWORTH, an urban district in the Keighley parliamentary division of the West Riding of Yorkshire, England, 10 m. N.W. of Bradford, on a branch of the Midland railway. Pop. (1901), 7492. It is picturesquely situated on a steep slope, lying high, and surrounded by moorland. The Rev. Patrick Brontë (d.1861) was incumbent here for forty-one years, and a memorial near the west window of St Michael's church bears his name and the names of his gifted daughters upon it. The grave of Charlotte and Emily Brontë is also marked by a brass. In 1895 a museum was opened by the Brontë society. There is a large worsted industry.

HAWSER (in sense and form as if from "hawse," which, from the 16th-century form halse, is derived from Teutonic

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HAWTHORN, a city of Bourke county, Victoria, Australia, 4 m. by rail E. of and suburban to Melbourne. Pop. (1901), 21,339. It is the seat of the important Methodist Ladies' College. The majority of the inhabitants are professional and business men engaged in Melbourne, and their residences are numerous at Hawthorn.

HAWTHORN (O. Eng. haga-, hæg-, or hege-thorn, i.e. "hedgethorn "), the common name for Crataegus, in botany, a genus of shrubs or small trees belonging to the natural order Rosaceae, native of the north temperate regions, especially America. It is represented in the British Isles by the hawthorn, white-thorn or may (Ger. Hagedorn and Christdorn; Fr. aubépine), C. Oxyacantha, a small, round-headed, much-branched tree, 10 to 20 ft. high, the branches often ending in single sharp spines. The leaves, which are deeply cut, are 1 to 2 in. long and very variable in shape. The flowers are sweet-scented, in flat-topped clusters, and to in. in diameter, with five spreading white petals alternating with five persistent green sepals, a large number of stamens with pinkish-brown anthers, and one to three carpels sunk in the cup-shaped floral axis. The fruit, or haw, as in the apple, consists of the swollen floral axis, which is usually scarlet, and forms a fleshy envelope surrounding the hard stone.

The common hawthorn is a native of Europe as far north as 6010 in Sweden, and of North Africa, western Asia and Siberia, and has been naturalized in North America and Australia. It thrives best in dry soils, and in height varies from 4 or 5 to 12, 15 or, in exceptional cases, as much as between 20 and 30 ft. It may be propagated from seed or from cuttings. The seeds must be from ripe fruit, and if fresh gathered should be freed from pulp by maceration in water. They germinate only in the second year after sowing; in the course of their first year the seedlings attain a height of 6 to 12 in. Hawthorn has been for many centuries a favourite park and hedge plant in Europe, and numerous varieties have been developed by cultivation; these differ in the form of the leaf, the white, pink or red, single or double flowers, and the yellow, orange or red fruit. In England the hawthorn, owing to its hardiness and closeness of growth, has been employed for enclosure of land since the Roman occupation, but for ordinary field hedges it is believed it was generally in use till about the end of the 17th century. James I. of Scotland, in his Quair, ii. 14 (early 15th century), mentions the "hawthorn hedges knet" of Windsor Castle. The first hawthorn hedges in Scotland are said to have been planted by soldiers of Cromwell at Inch Buckling Brae in East Lothian and Finlarig in Perthshire. Annual pruning, to which the hawthorn is particularly amenable, is necessary if the hedge is to maintain its compactness and sturdiness. When the lower part shows a tendency to go bare the strong stems may be "plashed," i.e. split, bent over and pegged to the ground so that new growths may start. The wood of the hawthorn is white in colour, with

a yellowish tinge. Fresh cut it weighs 68 lb 12 oz. per cubic foot, and dry 57 lb 3 oz. It can seldom be obtained in large portions, and has the disadvantage of being apt to warp; its great hardness, however, renders it valuable for the manufacture of various articles, such as the cogs of mill-wheels, flails and mallets, and handles of hammers. Both green and dry it forms excellent fuel. The bark possesses tanning properties, and in Scotland in past times yielded with ferrous sulphate a black dye for wool. The leaves are eaten by cattle, and have been employed as a substitute for tea. Birds and deer feed upon the haws, which are used in the preparation of a fermented and highly intoxicating liquor. The hawthorn serves as a stock for grafting other trees. As an ornamental feature in landscapes, it is worthy of notice; and the pleasing shelter it affords and the beauty of its blossoms have frequently been alluded to by poets. The custom of employing the flowering branches for decorative purposes on the 1st of May is of very early origin; but since the alteration in the calendar the tree has rarely been in full bloom in England before the second week of that month. In the Scottish Highlands the flowers may be seen as late as the middle of June. The hawthorn has been regarded as the emblem of hope, and its branches are stated to have been carried by the ancient Greeks in wedding processions, and to have been used by them to deck the altar of Hymen. The supposition that the tree was the source of Christ's crown of thorns gave rise doubtless to the tradition current among the French peasantry that it utters groans and cries on Good Friday, and probably also to the old popular superstition in Great Britain and Ireland that ill-luck attended the uprooting of hawthorns. Branches of the Glastonbury thorn, C. Oxyacantha, var. praecox, which flowers both in December and in spring, were formerly highly valued in England, on account of the legend that the tree was originally the staff of Joseph of Arimathea.

The number of species in the genus is from fifty to seventy, according to the view taken as to whether or not some of the forms, especially of those occurring in the United States, represent distinct species. C. coccinea, a native of Canada and the eastern United States, with bright scarlet fruits, was introduced into English gardens towards the end of the 17th century. C. Crus-Galli, with a somewhat similar distribution and introduced about the same time, is a very decorative species with showy, bright red fruit, often remaining on the branches till spring, and leaves assuming a brilliant scarlet and orange in the autumn; numerous varieties are in cultivation. C. Pyracantha, known in gardens as pyracantha, is evergreen and has white flowers, appearing in May, and fine scarlet fruits of the size of a pea which remain on the tree nearly all the winter. It is a native of south Europe and was introduced into Britain early in the 17th century.

HAWTHORNE, NATHANIEL (1804-1864), American writer, son of Nathaniel Hathorne (1776-1808), was born at Salem, Massachusetts, on the 4th of July 1804. The head of the American branch of the family, William Hathorne of Wilton, Wiltshire, England, emigrated with Winthrop and his company, and arrived at Salem Bay, Mass., on the 12th of June 1630. He had grants of land at Dorchester, where he resided for upwards of six years, when he was persuaded to remove to Salem by the tender of further grants of land there, it being considered a public benefit that he should become an inhabitant of that town. He represented his fellow-townsmen in the legislature, and served them in a military capacity as a captain in the first regular troop organized in Salem, which he led to victory through an Indian campaign in Maine. Originally a determined "Separatist,' and opposed to compulsion for conscience, he signalized himself when a magistrate by the active part which he took in the Quaker persecutions of the time (1657-1662), going so far on one occasion as to order the whipping of Anne Coleman and four other Friends through Salem, Boston and Dedham. He died, an old man, in the odour of sanctity, and left a good property to his son John, who inherited his father's capacity and intolerance, and was in turn a legislator, a magistrate, a soldier and a bitter persecutor of witches. Before the death of Justice Hathorne in 1717, the

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destiny of the family suffered a sea-change, and they began to be noted as mariners. One of these seafaring Hathornes figured in the Revolution as a privateer, who had the good fortune to escape from a British prison-ship; and another, Captain Daniel Hathorne, has left his mark on early American ballad-lore. He too was a privateer, commander of the brig" Fair American," which, cruising off the coast of Portugal, fell in with a British scow laden with troops for General Howe, which scow the bold Hathorne and his valiant crew at once engaged and fought for over an hour, until the vanquished enemy was glad to cut the Yankee grapplings and quickly bear away. The last of the Hathornes with whom we are concerned was a son of this sturdy old privateer, Nathaniel Hathorne. He was born in 1776, and about the beginning of the 19th century married Miss Elizabeth Clarke Manning, a daughter of Richard Manning of Salem, whose ancestors emigrated to America about fifty years after the arrival of William Hathorne. Young Nathaniel took his hereditary place before the mast, passed from the forecastle to the cabin, made voyages to the East and West Indies, Brazil and Africa, and finally died of fever at Surinam, in the spring of 1808. He was the father of three children, the second of whom was the subject of this article. The form of the family name was changed by the latter to " Hawthorne " in his early manhood.

After the death of her husband Mrs Hawthorne removed to the house of her father with her little family of children. Of the boyhood of Nathaniel no particulars have reached us, except that he was fond of taking long walks alone, and that he used to declare to his mother that he would go to sea some time and would never return. Among the books that he is known to have read as a child were Shakespeare, Milton, Pope and Thomson, The Castle of Indolence being an especial favourite. In the autumn of 1818 his mother removed to Raymond, a town in Cumberland county, Maine, where his uncle, Richard Manning, had built a large and ambitious dwelling. Here the lad resumed his solitary walks, exchanging the narrow streets of Salem for the boundless, primeval wilderness, and its sluggish harbour for the fresh bright waters of Sebago lake. He roamed the woods by day, with his gun and rod, and in the moonlight nights of winter skated upon the lake alone till midnight. When he found himself away from home, and wearied with his exercise, he took refuge in a log cabin where half a tree would be burning upon the hearth. He had by this time acquired a taste for writing, that showed itself in a little blank-book, in which he jotted down his woodland adventures and feelings, and which was remarkable for minute observation and nice perception of nature.

After a year's residence at Raymond, Nathaniel returned to Salem in order to prepare for college. He amused himself by publishing a manuscript periodical, which he called the Spectator, and which displayed considerable vivacity and talent. He speculated upon the profession that he would follow, with a sort of prophetic insight into his future. "I do not want to be a doctor and live by men's diseases," he wrote to his mother, nor a minister to live by their sins, nor a lawyer and live by their quarrels. So I don't see that there is anything left for me but to be an author. How would you like some day to see a whole shelf full of books, written by your son, with Hawthorne's Works' printed on their backs?"

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Nathaniel entered Bowdoin College, Brunswick, Maine, in the autumn of 1821, where he became acquainted with two students who were destined to distinction-Henry W. Longfellow and Franklin Pierce. He was an excellent classical scholar, his Latin compositions, even in his freshman year, being remarkable for their elegance, while his Greek (which was less) was good. He made graceful translations from the Roman poets, and wrote several English poems which were creditable to him. After graduation three years later (1825) he returned to Salem, and to a life of isolation. He devoted his mornings to study, his afternoons to writing, and his evenings to long walks along the rocky coast. He was scarcely known by sight to his townsmen, and he held so little communication with the members of his own family that his meals were frequently left at his

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