is not very likely to know what it is that a student who intends to practise really wants, or to be able to treat law as a living working system. Municipal law at all events is composed of the general rules stating how the tribunals of a country act. To understand the subject the actual action of the tribunals-eliminating the variable quantity introduced by the idiosyncracies of particular judges-must be studied. Vague generalities and curious points are of little use to the student. What he requires is a statement of the principles underlying the ordinary rules of action followed by the courts, and some fairly scientific or at least convenient arrangement and clear statement of these rules. The supposed distinction of practice and theory must be obliterated, and the law studied as an existing system now in operation, but at the same time as a system capable of scientific treatment.

The two questions calling for an answer, namely, (1) What is the provision which ought to be made for teaching law in England? and (2) What is the amount of training, and what are the tests of knowledge to be required from persons seeking admission to the legal profession? are necessarily to a large extent inter-dependent.

The answer to the latter affects that which should be given to the former, and will itself depend on the different qualifications required for each of the two branches of the legal profession. For both branches it is clearly in the public interest that some test of general education should be imposed, which should be gradually raised as Secondary education is improved throughout the country; in both it is desirable that encouragement should be given to students to graduate in Arts before beginning their special legal studies,* or else to widen their

The Lord Chief Justice has expressed the doubt whether it was wise of the older universities "to allow the B.A. degree to be taken in law." There are many who have been engaged in teaching who are of opinion that it was a mistake to allow it, and who will be glad to know that the weight of his authority will not be in the opposite scale.

reading beyond mere professional requirements by taking a degree in law. In the case of solicitors, such encouragement is already given by admitting graduates as solicitors after articled service for three instead of for five years. The number of university men entering this branch of the profession appears to be increasing. It is, of course, not desirable at present to insist on graduation as a condition of admission for solicitors, but the enlightened policy of the Incorporated Law Society in giving encouragement to graduation might be further developed. In particular, provision should be made for articled clerks who, before being articled, pass an Intermediate Degree Examination of suitable standard, and then graduate in law while serving in articles, to have the privilege of admission after three years' service. For the Bar a higher instead of a lower standard of general education should be demanded. Men who have not such an amount of general education as is implied by an ordinary degree, ought not to be entitled to practise in the courts. Either a degree or the passing of an examination of about the same standard as a final degree examination of an English university, should be insisted upon, subject to some exceptions in favour of persons who have been in some department of public service, and desire at an age older than that of the ordinary student, to obtain the status of barrister-at-law. The power of practically selecting the men who are to occupy the highest positions in the legal profession is mainly in the hands of the managing clerks of solicitors. Possibly the Bar may consider that their exercise of this patronage compares not unfavourably with that of others more highly placed, but it is better that the field of selection should be limited to those who have had some general education.

As regards the training for professional work and tests of professional knowledge, service in articles for three, four, or five years, as the case may be, in a solicitor's office, and the passing of the intermediate examination, or some degree

examination accepted in place of it, and of the final examination for solicitors appear to guarantee reasonably complete preparation for that branch of the profession. Certainly the solicitors who present themselves for the examinations for call to the Bar, usually compare very favourably with other candidates as regards legal knowledge.

It is true that in the case of barristers there is usually less need for protection to the public against professional incompetence than in the case of solicitors, as those who employ the barrister are themselves better able to judge of his fitness than the general public; but some reasonable limit should be set to the extent of ignorance which is permitted, especially as neither the experience which comes from large practice, nor evidence of legal knowledge shown by writings or otherwise, is regarded as a necessary condition for appointment to judicial offices. It ought not to be possible even for a clever and experienced examinee to pass all the examinations for call to the Bar after four or five months' study of Law. It is not the fault of the examiners, but of the system which they cannot control, that such cases occur as those quoted by the Lord Chief Justice. Probably the best course would be to insist upon two examinations, one in Roman Law and Constitutional Law, and perhaps in Jurisprudence, which might be passed at any time after entering an Inn of Court, and one in English Law, including the subjects usually treated under the heads of Common Law, Equity, Real and Personal Property, and Procedure. A student ought not to be admitted to the second examination before his sixth or eighth term, and the standard in all the subjects might be gradually raised, and care taken to keep it reasonably uniform. Permission could be given to present some of the subjects separately, if desired, and students who intend to practice in India, in Ceylon, or other places, where different laws may prevail, ought to be allowed to substitute some branch of Indian or Roman Dutch Law for parts of the

English Law of Property. For the Inns of Court, as advocated by the Lord Chief Justice, to be liberal in accepting the testamurs of universities, in lieu of the first of the two examinations, would assist in keeping up the valuable connection with the universities.

It is probably not desirable at present to make attendance on any definite course of legal instruction compulsory before all, but there would be an advantage in requiring that certificates should be produced either of attendance on prescribed courses of lectures or classes, or of having read in the chambers of a barrister for at least one year.* The courses of Lectures at the Owen's College, Manchester, or the University College, Liverpool, or other well established law schools, ought to be expressly recognized for this purpose as well as those held under the direction of the Council of Legal Education, or of the new University Authority in London.

More important, however, than the raising and fixing of the minimum requirements for admission to the legal profession, is the establishment of a reasonably complete system of legal education for those who desire to avail themselves of it, and the constitution of the authority by which legal education is to be directed in London. The work already done, since the introduction, seven years ago, of the changes which were mainly due to the efforts of a few of the members, or former members, of the Council of Legal Education, has not been sufficiently recognized. For thirty-six hours a week during the educational session lectures are given or classes held at one or other of the Inns of Court. At some of the regular lectures the average attendance is from forty to fifty, although the number of lectures given is so large, and though so many of the students of the Inns are Oxford and Cambridge men, who, on leaving the university, are not usually very anxious

* Mr. Drysdale Woodcock's suggestion of constituting a tablet of barristers approved for this purpose, is well worth consideration.-Vide Law Magazine and Review, August, 1898.

to continue attendance either at lectures or at classes for tutorial instruction. The attendance at short courses of occasional lectures on special subjects is, of course, much larger. The existing authority, however, cannot be regarded as quite satisfactory. It is impossible for those who have not given any serious consideration to the subject of education, although they may have attained some eminence in the practice of their profession, to undertake with advantage the sole direction of what should really be a legal university. No definite and consistent policy will be adopted until there is some change in the constitution of the body by which legal education in London is directed. Sudden and ill-considered changes will be made. A chance vote may undo the work of years at any moment. The supposed interests of the different Inns of Court may exercise a controlling influence on the decisions at which a body entirely composed of their respective representatives may arrive. What is wanted is a definitely constituted governing body, incorporated for the purpose of establishing and directing a complete system of legal education, in close touch with the professions, and at the same time with adequate knowledge of educational needs. It is not desirable that such a body should be merely a branch of a newly constituted London University, the destinies of policy of which are quite uncertain; the better plan would be to constitute a special authority ad hoc. Such an authority should possess a representative character, and might well be composed in some such manner as the following-two representatives chosen by the judges, two by each of the Inns of Court, two at least by the Incorporated Law Society, and one or two each by the universities, so that some definite connection between the central School of Law in London, and the university work and legal education given in other parts of the country, could be maintained, and the work done in teaching law in other places than London duly recognized. Two direct representatives of the Bar, and perhaps two of the