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edifice, is practically elementary; but that fact is by no means conclusive evidence that its higher education is an hallucination.

The systems of public schools supported by States insisting on the separation of the races, their work, necessities, and the results accomplished by them, are matters of which the public is well informed. Since the report of 1885-86 a portion of this annual volume has been devoted to compiling what was known of the subject, while the debates in Congress and the discussions in the public prints have illuminated every side of it. The usual figures of attendance, etc., follow.

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It will be remarked by the patient reader who examines the table that the white pupils show an increase of about 85,000; the colored, a decrease of about 12,000. The number of colored teachers has increased 800, while the number of white teachers has increased but 700. Were it possible to ascertain what scholastic and personal qualifications these 800 new colored teachers bring to their duties the advantages of this large increment to the teaching force of colored persons might be discussed.

In the academies, schools, colleges, etc., for colored yonth there are, as far as known, 10,191 male and 11,920 female students. In the elementary grades 57 per cent of the attendance are girls; in the secondary grades, 53 per cent; while in the collegiate department only 25 per cent are women. In all schools reporting for 1892-93 there are 25,859 students. In the elementary departments of 75 institutions are 13,176 pupils; in the secondary are 7,365; in the collegiate, 963, and in the professional are 924.

There are several questions connected with the institutional life of the colored pupil that deal more particularly with ethics than pedagogics. Under the caption of “Separate education" the authorities of Hartshorn Memorial College observe: The establishment of this institution for the education of young women affirms nothing, and expresses no opinion touching the abstract question of coeducation or the separate education of the sexes. Either system, doubtless, has its own special advantages and disadvantages. But this enterprise embodies the conviction that for the students whom this institution will gather, under pres ent conditions and with their present social environment, the balance of advantage is on the side of separation.

It is something, and no small matter, that the necessity of unceasing surveillance, by day and by night, irritating to pupil and burdensome to teacher, is removed.

It is something that courses of study and of instruction may be more closely adjusted to the special and practical needs of young women.

To those who have seen the conscience broken down, the moral tone deteriorated, habits of duplicity engendered, and the best intellects become vapid through the unhealthy life engendered in a mixed institution, it will seem an important matter that one chief stimulus of this unhealthy life be removed.

To fathers and mothers, who remember the sad experiences of some mixed schools, present safety for their inexperienced daughters, sent beyond parental watchcare, will, perhaps, outweigh all other considerations.

The Utopian notion that young people can be brought promiscuously together and counted brothers and sisters, human nature laughs to scorn.

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In the presence of such institutions as Mount Holyoke Seminary, Vassar and Wellesley colleges, and others of like worth, few would venture to affirm that the highest womanly worth and strength is dependent upon walking and talking and reciting for a few years with young men.

The strong women of this generation, whose hand is upon the school work, and the mission work, and the reformatory work, and the social life of the time, received their training largely in separate schools.

With the heading "Coeducation," the anthorities of Bennett College speak with equal positiveness to the contrary, as follows:

After years' observation and experience we are very decidedly in favor of the education of our young people of both sexes in the same school, provided their association is under proper discipline and suitable care, which we claim is had here.

This is unquestionably, in our judgment, the normal, healthy, home-like method. The improvement under these circumstances in manners, self-reliance, and social culture, the development of manhood and womanhood, are often very marked. We know that some parents are reluctant to send their daughters to schools for both sexes; but this apprehension, we believe, arises chiefly from an insufficient famil. iarity with the facts. One authority says: "Corrupt influences are more liable to abound in schools exclusively for either sex, but particularly in separate schools for girls." To insure modesty," says Richter, "I would advise the education of the sexes together; but I will guarantee nothing in a school where girls are alone together, and still less where boys are."

THE EDUCATION OF THE COLORED RACE IS BECOMING MORE AND MORE INDUSTRIAL.

In the early efforts for the education of the negro in America the object in view was his enlightenment. That point once gained it was thought that his welfare would be secure. But owing to his necessitous condition and the comparatively small amount of funds at the disposal of the private or corporate schools, an effort was made in a few cases to do what years before had been tried in different parts of the Union and found to be a failure in the case of institutions for the Caucasian race. This scheme was to have the white student work out his expense while pursuing the studies of the schoolroom, in order that "many of our most worthy young men, who were deprived of the advantages of an education through poverty," might overcome that obstacle to their ambitions. In the case of the negro the effort has persisted longer and has been either more successful than the experiment of 1830-40 in the North and West, or adventitious circumstances have aided it almost to the extent of floating it to an unwonted degree of prosperity.

From various reasons a wave of industrial training overran the country in the later seventies and early eighties that, as a form of education, was adopted by many city school systems, but reached its most distinguished development in the manual training schools of St. Louis and Chicago. The scheme of mechanical instruction of these schools was not native to America. It had been elaborated in a Russian technological university, in which there was a feature of practical work in the engineering course, thus bringing it into very sharp contrast with the German type of technological university (Technische Hochschule or polytechnicum). But to give these advanced engineering students of scientific technology a practical insight into the processes by which the mechanics whom they were in the future to direct must work out in wood or metal their ideas as engineers, a course of instruction was established which in America was, in the early days of its adoption, called the Russian system of manual training. The anarchy of shopwork for profit on the principles of the mechanico-theological or classical schools for poor students of the thirties was now superseded by a well-digested and systematic plan of mechanical instruction without profit. Now, the work of the negro has been much more closely connected with the old mechanico-theological idea than with the Russian system, though the introduction of drawing and machinery gave it dignity as a plan of instruction. This, however, it acquired by the action of the Slater fund trustees.

The systematic instruction of the colored race in the village industries is inseparably connected with the administration of the John F. Slater fund. It was not particularly Mr. Slater who caused the fund to be used to foster trade teaching, but his trustees; for the "general object" of his deed of gift, "to be exclusively pursued," was the uplifting of the lately emancipated population of the Southern States and their posterity by conferring upon them the blessings of a Christian educationeducation in which the instruction of the mind in the common branches of secular learning shall be associated with training in just notions of duty toward God and man in the light of the Holy Scripture. Though the methods of accomplishing this was left to the discretion of the trustees, Mr. Slater strongly indicated that in his opinion the training of teachers was the method to be adopted. In a private conversation with Dr. Haygood, however, he put industrial training as the sixth (and last) object to be taken into consideration in the use of the interest of the fund known by his name. It should be remarked, however, that the trustees may have been influenced in the concentration of the fund upon industrial training by the fact that the Peabody fund had for some years been steadily concentrating its resources on the training of teachers, and the States were making provision to supply their colored schools with properly qualified persons. Be this as it may, the trustees of the fund early determined to confine its aid to such schools as were best fitted to prepare young colored men and women to become useful to their race, and that institutions which gave instruction in trades and other manual occupations that would enable colored youths to make a living and to become useful citizens be carefully sought out and preferred. This policy was continued ten years.

At the date of 1883 the highest example of industrial or trade teaching of the negro was Hampton Normal and Industrial School. Only a few of the higher grade schools for colored youth had attempted to teach trades. Many of the most experienced persons in the field were not convinced that it was wise to attempt it; others advocated it. The rudimentary character of this instruction may be inferred from the first reports to the agent of the fund, Dr. Haygood. Clark University reports, "Without the aid of the Slater fund ($2,000) we could have done little in the industrial department, as it required $1,100 to equip it, and our printing department would have failed entirely." Tuskegee Normal School reports, "For the impetus given to the industrial department the school is chiefly indebted to the John F. Slater fund." Claflin University remarks, "As soon as we received notice of the appropriation of $2,000 from the Slater fund arrangements were made to erect a suitable carpenter shop." And so on, to a large extent, with a score of institutions aided by the fund. Yet these institutions had been carefully sought out as the best for being aided in this matter of trade instruction. It is beyond a doubt that the efficient cause of the impetus for industrial education of the negro was given by the management of the Slater fund and the enthusiasm of their late agent, now Bishop Haygood.

On the retirement of Dr. Haygood the plan of the distribution of the Slater fund was somewhat changed. The trustees created a board of education, of which Dr. Curry, the agent of the Peabody fund, was made chairman. The new plan of operation advocated neither the teaching of trades nor the support of institutions not on a "permanent basis." Instead of the teaching of this or that trade the teaching of the "underlying principles of all trades" and the employment of persons expert in imparting such instruction was to be kept in view; and the schools are already beginning to follow the hint thus given. The act of Congress of August 30, 1890, for the benefit of schools established for the advancement of education in agriculture and the mechanic arts, very likely has had, or will have, the effect to foster this idea of preventing the petrifaction of the negro into a village mechanic or farm laborer while directing his thoughts and impulses toward industrial rather than political spheres of activity. As the State and the Peabody fund may be looked to to promote the training of teachers, the Slater fund and the $10,000 or $12,000

annually given to the States thickly populated with negroes, for their industrial education, may be looked to to supply men capable of conducting an industrial business. It has been through the avenues of trade that an inferior people rise to a higher condition. Trade brings wealth, wealth leisure, and leisure the opportunity, if not the desire, for culture.

As taught in the schools for the colored race about the year 1893, the industrial instruction had the following forms, to wit: The manual training or education by work idea; trade teaching of the mechanic trades; agriculture; printing; and, for girls, housework, including sewing and nurse training.

At Tougaloo University, in accordance with the general plan of the Slater fund, a change was recently made in the form of the industrial work, especial attention being given to manual training with a view to the general culture of mind and hand. This change consisted in the establishment of a two-years course of woodwork of an hour to an hour and a half a day for the seventh and eighth grades, covering the processes and principles of working in wood and with woodworking tools. The exercises are graded, running from the simple to the more difficult, the aim being to adapt them to the mental capacity of the student as well as to his dexterity, and to make them a helpful part of his school work. Each student has a blue print of his work before him. A course in woodwork adapted to the fifth and sixth grades, and a course in ironwork for the ninth grade, is to follow it, while for the tenth and eleventh grades a course of mechanical drawing is to be provided. Straight University also has felt the Slater impetus toward a more concentrated method of manual instruction, and has likewise established a two-years course in woodwork for the seventh and eighth grades, with the same features of the course at Tougaloo University. In fact, the course as explained by Tougaloo and worked out in the following programme may be considered as the Slater course of manual training:

Seventh grade (limited to square work).-Planing to a true surface; laying out work (including measuring with the rule and marking with knife and gauge); sawing to the line; boring; gluing; driving nails and screws; sandpapering; making box joint, dado, mortise, tenon, and groove.

Eighth grade (especially bended or curved work).—Making miter joint (square, octagon, and hexagon); regular and irregular bevels (using steel square); scarf joint, dovetail; laying out curved work; planing and chiseling curved surfaces; sawing curved lines; bending by sawing and steaming; making round forms.

At Fisk University, after the manual training course of two years has been completed the "principles" inculcated are applied during a third year in building and cabinetmaking, while during both the second and third years the nature and use of paints, varnishes, stains, and polishes are taught. In addition to the aid from the Slater fund aid was also received from the Daniel Hand fund in establishing this "new line" of work. It will be seen that the remunerative or practical feature has not been disregarded at this university. At several institutions supported in part by the proceeds from the sale of public lands belonging to the United States and at the comparatively well endowed Atlanta University quite ambitious efforts are being made to inaugurate a system of practical technological instruction much above the average for colored schools. Indeed, at Central Tennessee College there is a course of study in mechanical engineering of four years, though no one has availed himself of it.

But the form of manual training that has been in vogue in the independent or isolated schools for the negro in the past has been of quite another form. The institutions giving this instruction drew their aid from the revenues provided by generous persons interested in the welfare of the negro, and as their attendance increased quite frequently their classes in carpentry and in bricklaying, and in agriculture were utilized in building new and in enlarging or repairing old structures, or in working the fields for garden produce. Sometimes the blacksmithing and wheel

wrighting of the neighborhood was done; but in general it may be said that the work of the trade classes had a double object in view-instruction of the pupils, and the enlargement or repair of the institution or the cultivation of its grounds. Not that the object of the institution was at all mercenary, but because that was about the only way in which any remuneration could be gotten by the institution out of the labor of its students; if not in this way, then failure.

This species of manual instruction is of varied nature: Carpentry, bricklaying and brickmaking, blacksmithing, painting, and printing for men; cooking, dressmaking, and in general housewifery for women. It is doubtful if a better illustration of this object, and methods of the institution giving this character of instruction, can be found than the following announcement:

INDUSTRIAL DEPARTMENTS.

The industrial work is carried on in connection with a four years' course of academic work designed to give a thorough English education. With these objects are kept in view, viz:

(1) To teach the dignity of labor.

(2) To teach the students how to work, giving them a trade when thought best.

(3) To enable students to pay a portion of their expenses in labor.

At present the most developed of the industries are:

Agriculture. This department controls two farms of 680 and 800 acres, respectively. The funds at command will not allow much outlay in new experimental farming. The special effort, therefore, is to give the students lessons in common, practical farming. The farms not only furnish an object lesson and valuable employment to students, but supply largely the demands of the school.

Brickmaking. On the farm have been found extensive beds of clay suitable for making bricks. From these beds the school has been able to make bricks enough to build five substantial buildings for school uses, and to sell many to neighbors. The bricks are made and laid by students, thus reducing the cash outlay for buildings to the minimum.

Carpentry. The students are taught to do all kinds of work, such as building cottages, fences, repairing buildings, making and repairing furniture, etc. Of the many buildings on the grounds, most of the work has been done by boys of this department.

Fainting.-Painting of buggies and graining are emphasized. House painting is regularly done. Many buggies and carts for the town and country are brought in and painted.

Printing. In this office are printed the catalogues, "Southern Letter," "Student," and much job work for the school and the surrounding country.

Blacksmithing and wheelwrighting.-These departments do all the work for the school and farm, and much for the town and country.

Tinsmithing, shoemaking, and harness making.-Harness work for the neighborhood, as well as for the school farm, is done. The students' shoes are repaired and all the roofing of the institution is done.

Sawmill.-One of the most useful of the industrial occupations is that in connection with the sawmill. A large part of the farm is covered with pine forest.

Wages. The rate of wages is according to the age of the student and the real value of his work. The arrangements are such that students lose nothing in their classes by working out a part of their expenses. At the end of each month a bill is given to every student showing what he may owe the school or what the school may owe him.

A very favorable statement of the condition of trade teaching is given by Howard University. There the industrial department occupies an entire building, 40 by 75 feet, of two stories and basement, and the students in the preparatory and normal departments practice in the methods of certain trades at specified hours. The work in each department is done under the personal direction of a skilled workman, and with the advantage of first-class tools.

Before leaving the subject of trade teaching in the isolated schools for the colored race it is necessary that certain remarks of Dr. Haygood, in his last report (1891) to the trustees of the Slater fund, should be reproduced. They are as follows:

"If there had been no Slater fund, much by this time would have been done in industrial education in these schools; but every informed person knows that the help and encouragement of this great benevolence has furnished the inspiration and driving force of this vital movement. But for the friendship won to some of these schools through the industries fostered by the Slater money they would, by this

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