Asiatic culture of the Chukchee and Koryak and of the Northwest American natives. In Eastern Turkestan Stein's excavations have established simultaneous Chinese, Græco-Roman, and Buddhistic influences in the third century, A. D. In the beginning of the year the Sarasin Consins made an epoch-making discovery by proving the existence of a Veddah stone-age, which definitely refuted the assumption that the Veddahs of to-day are simply degenerate Singhalese. The Todas of India have been exhaustively treated by Pitt-Rivers, and comprehensive monographs by Martin and Skeat have cleared up our knowledge of the Malay Peninsula. In regard to the early historical relation of Asia to Europe a reaction is setting in, and many traits of European archæology which were formerly supposed to have been directly transmitted from the Orient are now believed to be autochthonous.

In Africa, where specimens of the stone age could once be counted on the fingers, stone artifacts have recently multiplied beyond expectation. They have been found by Schweinfurth in the North, in the region of Timbuctoo by Decorse, in the Congo by government surveyors, and by Johnson south of the Zambesi. A sensational controversy is raging about the stone ruins at Simbabye, Rhodesia. Some scholars scented South Arabian (Sabæan) influence, and from the discovery of numerous golden ornaments and gilt implements inferred that this was the scriptural land of Ophir. On the other hand, Randall Maciver and Luschan contend that Nanking porcelain and Arabian glass are found in the lowest of the known strata and that, accordingly, the stone structures do not go back further than the fourteenth century. They regard the ruins as fortifications rather than as temples, and argue for a Kaffir provenience of the finds. In the absence of Semitic inscriptions the balance at present inclines to the skeptical standpoint. Excavations in Egypt have been vigorously pursued, revealing the stone age of that country and the remains of many of its potentates.

From a morphological point of view a remarkable stability has been proved for Egyptian racial types, as representatives of the various populations now occupying the Nile valley are found in all the older periods. Recent speculations on the origin of Egyptian civilization no longer favor a bodily transmission of Asiatic culture from Mesopotamia to Egypt. The present tendency is to regard Egyptian culture as essentially indigenous. According to Naville's latest theory, the nation was originally formed by an African Hamitic stock, with which a foreign Hamitic element from Arabia became subsequently blended. That pure negroes formed an integral, and by no means subordinate part of the old Egyptian population, has been recently maintained by Stahr. In this connection the theory that the Hottentots are linguistically affiliated with the Hamitic family is of great interest. This relationship, now defended by Luschan, would account for the cattle-raising practiced by the Hottentots in contradistinction to the hunting Bushmen, with whom they are usually associated. The clicks in their language and the difference of physical type is explained by mixture and contact with the aboriginal population. Ethnologically, great progress has been made in our knowledge of the Congo State. Torday has reported on several of the Kwango tribes, Professor Starr of Chicago has studied the Kasai and

Upper Congo districts, and Frobenius has made a specialty of the Kasai region. In a preliminary report the latter seeks to trace a historical relationship between the artistic style of the Bakuba and that of Benin on the coast of Guinea. For several years the Museum du Congo of Tervueren (near Brussels) has published monographs on the industries, language, and religion of the natives. The contribution of 1907 contains an exhaustive account of pottery, which is found to flourish especially on the Lower and Middle Congo. Here the negroes have advanced to the use of a rosinous, though unglazed, coating and to the manufacture of a crude potter's wheel. The most general result of special ethnographical work in the "Dark Continent" is undoubtedly a higher estimate of Africa's contribution to the world's civilization. This is particularly favored by the recent theories of the origin of ironwork. Both Schweinfurth and Luschan regard the smelting of iron as an invention of the negro. Luschan, indeed, goes further and derives the iron technique of modern civilization from that of the African. From the universal presence of readily fusible ores in tropical Africa and their absence in Egypt, from the wide diffusion of iron metallurgy among the negroes and the testimony of Egyptian monuments, he infers that the ancient Egyptians derived the art from the negroes, introduced it into Syria and Mediterranean countries generally by the middle of the second millennium B. C., and that it reached Scandinavia some eight or nine centuries later.

The ethnography of Oceanica has received monographic treatment at the hands of Parkinson, Krämer, and Stephan; New Guinea has been recently explored by Dr. Pöch, who has taken numerous kinematographs of native dances. The latest report of the Cambridge Anthropological Expedition to Torres Straits by S. H. Ray summarizes the linguistic results of the investigation. Ray proves that the western language of the islands is Australian, while the Eastern is morphologically but not genealogically related to the Papuan dialects of New Guinea, but distinct from Melanesian. Spencer and Gillen have added a study on the north central aborigines to their classical work on the Arunta and kindred tribes, Howitt has collected his notes on the Southeastern Australians, and Roth has published a series of bulletins on the technology, linguistics, and religion of the natives of Queensland. With the exception of the western portion of the continent, which remains unexplored, Australia has thus become tolerably well known. At the same time Spencer and Gillen's ignorance of native languages has invited criticism as to the reliability of some of their most important data on totemism and religious conceptions, and the need for revision has just been voiced by Klaatsch, the most recent ethnographical student of the territory in question. The discussion on the nature of totemism inaugurated by Spencer and Gillen's theory that it originated in magical ceremonies undertaken for the insurance of an abundant food supply continues to the present. On the vital point, however, whether the conditions found among the Arunta are to be regarded as typical, the verdict of practically all scholars is negative. The notion that this tribe represents a more primitive stage of society than other Australian peoples is being abandoned, and, from a wider point of view, the possibility of a convergent evolution of totemism in differ

ANTHROPOLOGY

ent parts of the globe is at last being recognized.

The trend of latter-day ethnological thought is towards a substitution of more accurate historical methods for the older attempts at explaining complicated phenomena on abstract psychological principles and for schematic representations of evolutionary development. This is particularly true in the United States and Germany, while English anthropologists are, on the whole, faithful followers of the classical school. In America the traditional doctrines that mother-right everywhere preceded paternal descent, that all primitive society was patterned on the clan system, that ethics, or religion, or art, developed by uniform stages in various parts of the globe have been virtually abandoned. The determination of the historically traceable influence of tribe upon tribe on the basis of detailed inquiry is the objective point of present-day ethnological study, and constitutes the theoretical peg for the isolated facts.

The most important periodical publications devoted to anthropology in America are: The American Anthropologist and the Journal of American Folk-Lore; in Germany: the Zeitschrift für Ethnologie and the Archiv für Anthropologie; in England: the Journal of the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland; in France: L'Anthropologie and the Bulletins et Mémoires de la Société d'Anthropologie de Paris. To these old standard periodicals there has been recently added Anthropos, the organ of Catholic missionaries undertaking ethnographical and philological studies. It is published in Austria, under the editorship of P. V. Schmidt, and gives special prominence to linguistics.

A personal event of general interest in 1907 was the celebration of the seventy-fifth birthday of Edward Burnett Tylor, in whose honor the most distinguished English ethnologists published a volume of Anthropological Papers.

ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETIES. The American Anthropological Association remains the chief organization in America devoted to the interests of anthropology. Joint sessions of the Association of the American Folk-Lore Society, and of Section H of the American Anthropological Association, were held at Columbia University, New York, from December 27, 1906, until January 1, 1907. Though following on the heels of the International Congress of Americanists, which met in Quebec in September, 1906, the meetings were distinguished by the number and variety of the papers presented. At the annual election the following officers were chosen: President, Professor Franz Boas; vicepresidents, Dr. George A. Dorsey, Clarence B. Moore, W. H. Holmes, and Alice C. Fletcher; secretary, George G. MacCurdy; treasurer, B. T. B. Hyde; editor, F. W. Hodge. The Committee on the Preservation of American Antiquities reported on the legislation effected by longcontinued agitation-the creation of the Mesa Verde National Park for the preservation of cliff-dwelling remains and the bill protecting all archæological sites on United States territory. Another committee proposed a uniform terminology in the description of archæological specimens. General dissatisfaction with Powell's plan of designating Indian linguistic stocks, according to the priority rule, resulted in a proposal to modify the nomenclature hitherto in vogue. The Committee on the Concordance of American

Mythologies, which is designed to facilitate comparative studies of folk-lore, reported progress and was empowered to continue work during the year. The principal organ of American anthropologists is the American Anthropologist. In addition to this quarterly the association is publishing Memoirs, of which the first volume was completed and the second begun in 1907. While the interests of the American association embrace alike somatology, archæology, linguistics, and ethnography, special study of mythological and kindred subjects is promoted by the affiliated American Folk-Lore Society, which issues its quarterly Journal, under the editorship of Professor Alexander F. Chamberlain, and, somewhat less regularly, monographic memoirs. Its officers are: President, Professor Roland B. Dixon; vice-presidents, John R. Swanton, H. M. Belden; councillors, F. A. Golder, George B. Gordon, H. M. Hind, Clark Wissler, David Boyle; acting permanent secretary, Alfred M. Tozzer. The Anthropological Society of Washington held fortnightly meetings throughout the year. The last annual election resulted as follows: President, Ales Hrdlicka; vice-presidents, D. S. Lamb, J. W. Fewkes, W. H. Holmes, Walter Hough, James Mooney, J. N. B. Hewitt, and Alice C. Fletcher; general secretary, Walter Hough. The work of these national organizations is supplemented by numerous State and local societies. Thus, in May the lowa Anthropological Associa tion held its fourth annual convention, and branches of the American Folk-Lore Society exist in Boston, Cambridge, California, Arizona, Missouri, Iowa, North Dakota, Tennessee, British Columbia, and Mexico.

In

Officially, anthropological research is promoted by the Bureau of American Ethnology, of which Professor William H. Holmes is chief. Among the publications of the year are the Twenty-fourth and Twenty-fifth Annual Reports. The former contains Stewart Culin's monograph on the "Games of the North American Indians." the latter J. W. Fewkes summarizes our knowledge, based partly on documentary evidence, of "The Aborigines of Porto Rico." An invaluable work of reference for specialist and lay reader alike was published as Bulletin 30, which forms the first half of an encyclopedic Handbook of the American Indians North of Mexico. Originally intended merely to eliminate misapprehension of tribal designations, by extended synonyms, the work developed into a historical and ethnographical account of the various North American families and tribes, with special articles on every phase of primitive life and biographies of notable characters. A similarly encyclopedic Handbook of American Languages is being prepared under the direction of Prof. Franz Boas, honorary philologist of the bureau. While Powell's classification of North American families was based on exclusively lexicographic considerations, the new work is intended to culminate in the ascertainment of remoter connections by means of morphological comparison. Field work was carried on by Dr. J. W. Fewkes, who conducted excavations at Casa Grande, Arizona. Collections secured in the field were, as formerly, donated to the United States National Museum at Washington (curator, Prof. O. T. Mason), which, like the bureau itself, forms part of the Smithsonian Institution.

Equally important has been the work of nongovernmental institutions. The Archæological Institute of America equipped two archæological

expeditions-one to southwestern Colorado and southeastern Utah, the other to the Jemez Plateau of northern New Mexico, both under the supervision of Professor E. L. Hewett. The American Museum of Natural History commenced an archæological reconnoissance of the plains, conducted by Mr. Harlan I. Smith, while Mr. R. H. Lowie made an ethnological trip to the "Stoney" Assiniboines of Alberta and the Crow Indians of Montana. The Memoirs of the Jesup North Pacific Expedition are being published, under the editorship of Professor Boas. The results of other museum researches, once recorded in bulletins, together with zoological investigations, are now issued separately by the curator, Dr. Clark Wissler, as Anthropological Papers of the American Museum. The Field Columbian Museum is maintaining an expedition to the Philippines, under Dr. William Jones and Mr. F. Cole. Dr. George B. Gordon of the Free Museum of Science and Art of the University of Pennsylvania made an ethnological excursion to Alaska. The Department of Anthropology of the University of California continues its archæological, ethnological, and linguistic survey of California. The results are embodied in the university publications, and the collections are stored in the University Museum.

Marked progress is noticeable in the teaching of anthropology. The most complete and systematic courses in anthropology are offered by the department of Columbia University, where Professor Boas lectures on ethnography and linguistics, Professor Farrand on general ethnological problems, and Professor Saville on prehistoric archæology. At the University of California, Professors Kroeber and Goddard lecture on ethnography, linguistics, and archæology. Here, and at Harvard, museum work is combined with instruction for advanced students. The Harvard courses are under the general supervision of Professor Frederic W. Putnam; Professor Dixon lectures on general ethnology and linguistics, Professor Peabody on European archæology, Dr. Farabee on physical anthropology, and Dr. Tozzer on Mexico and Central America. At the University of Pennsylvania Dr. G. B. Gordon, curator of ethnology in the Free Museum, conducts courses in archæology and somatology, while Mr. F. S. Speck lectures on general ethnography and linguistics. At the University of Chicago courses on ethnological subjects are offered by the department of sociology. On the whole, however, conditions are favorable to the organization of a distinctly anthropological curriculum. This was proved in 1907 by the rapid development of the anthropological department at the University of Minnesota and the inauguration of a department at the University of Wisconsin.

ANTIMONY. In the early months of 1907, during the reign of high prices for the metal, a small quantity of antimony was produced from domestic ores at the smelter in San Francisco. The chief production of the metal, however, was obtained by smelting imported ores and regulus at the smelter in Chelsea, Staten Island, N. Y. There was also a large quantity of antimony produced in the form of antimonial lead, a by-product in lead smelting. This material was consumed largely for the manufacture of anti-friction metal. The outlook for the utilization of domestic antimony ores was brightened by the very satisfactory results obtained at a milling plant in Utah, which concentrated an

ANTI-SALOON LEAGUE OF AMERICA. An organization which began with the formation of the Anti-Saloon League of the District of Columbia in 1893. The national society was organized at Washington in 1895. In 1907 there were 42 State leagues in operation, including affiliated bodies of other names. The aim of the league is the ultimate extinction of the liquor traffic. It stands for prohibition wherever it is possible to attain it, and will join with any body of whatever creed or party that antagonizes the liquor traffic. The remarkable gains of prohibition in the South are largely due to the persistent efforts of the league. The officers for 1907-09 are as follows: President, Bishop L. B. Wilson (Methodist Episcopal); vice-presidents, Bishop G. M. Mathews (United Brethren), Father James M. Cleary (Roman Catholic), Rev. David J. Burrell, D. D. (Reformed), Bishop J. W. Hamilton (Methodist Episcopal), Rev. Frederick D. Power, LL. D. (Disciples), Rev. W. B. Crumpton, D. D. (Baptist), Judge Charles A. Pollock (Methodist Episcopal), Rev. Washington Gladden, D. D. (Congregational), Rev. William L. McEwan, D. D. (Presbyterian), Rev. J. C. Barr, D. D. (Southern Presbyterian), Bishop H. C. Morrison (Methodist Episcopal Church, South), Bishop William N. McVickar (Protestant Episcopal); general superintendent, Rev. Purley A. Baker, D. D. (Methodist Episcopal); recording secretary and secretary of Headquarters Committee, Rev. S. E. Nicholson (Friends); corresponding secretary, Mr. James L. Ewin (Methodist Episcopal); treasurer, Mr. Foster Copeland (Presbyterian); assistant general superintendent, Rev. G. W. Young, D. D. (Methodist Episcopal Church, South); chairman Headquarters Committee, Rev. Howard H. Russell, D. D. (Congregational); president Board of Trustees, Rev. Brooks Lawrence (Presbyterian).

ANTITOXIN. The search for antitoxins, which shall be as curative for particular diseases as anti-diphtheritic serum is for diphtheria, was very active during 1907. (See OPSONINS; SERUM THERAPY.) Malaria was one of the diseases investigated with reference to a specific serum. Captain J. H. Ford, assistant surgeon, United States Army, at Malabang, Mindanao, Philippine Islands, continuing researches made in 1904 at Fort Reno, Okla., treated twenty cases of benign malaria by the injection of antitoxin serum developed by inoculating monkeys and goats with the tertian malarial parasite. Analysis of the cases treated by the injection of defibrinated blood from repeatedly inoculated monkeys or goats, or serum drawn from the latter, showed that, of twenty cases, seventeen recovered without other medication, while three were uninfluenced. Reappearance of the parasite in a few cases, after varying intervals of time, was followed by entire cure after antitoxin treatment was again instituted. Two cases of the quartan type of malaria were uninfluenced, which the experimenter believes is in line with Koch's dis

ican republics, Mexico, and the United States at Washington, as well as the less official conference at Lake Mohonk, the Peace Conference at New York, and the propaganda of the International Parliamentary Union. Actual results obtained during the year were arbitration treaties between Italy and Argentina and Italy and Mexico, as well as the reference of the New foundland fisheries disputes between Canada and the United States to The Hague Conference, and finally the payment by Venezuela of certain claims which had been awarded to its foreign creditors.

ARBITRATION AT THE HAGUE CONFERENCE. Much favorable opinion for the establishment of compulsory arbitration was elicited at the second Hague Conference during its session, but no definite steps were taken toward the formation of an international juridical court, chiefly because of the adoption of a rule of procedure which required unanimity for any final decision of the Conference, and this in spite of the fact that 39 out of 45 countries represented cast their votes in favor of compulsory arbitration.

In the first Hague Conference, it will be recalled, there had been organized the International Arbitration Court, with a permanent bureau. For this court there is now a permanent habitation, the so-called "Palace of Peace," donated by Mr. Carnegie. The criticism hitherto directed against this court is that it is not a purely judicial tribunal, but a half-judicial, halfdiplomatic body, whose decisions have been biased by national or local considerations. So far the Court has decided on a number of international disputes, such as that between Venezuela and her foreign creditors, Japan and the European Powers in regard to the house tax, the Anglo-French trouble respecting Muscat, and the Newfoundland fisheries dispute. What the Conference of 1907 sought was to turn this International Arbitration Court into a purely juridical tribunal, in which national interests should disappear under a further development of international law. But in view of the fact that such a body of international law is not yet in existence, considerable criticism of the Court's procedure was aroused. Thus the German delegate to the Conference, Baron von Marschall, stated that grave and solemn recommendation of arbitration in general terms, such as that given at the last Conference, was of more importance than any obligatory arbitration. For the latter certain things were needful, such as simplification of the process of resorting to The Hague Tribunal, and especially the rendering of the court permanent, as the American proposal suggested. The American proposal was an attempt to compromise between the obligatory principle and conservative opinion, which sought to preserve for each country the right to decide on questions of vital interest. But General Porter's proposition distinctly excluded all questions of "vital interest, independence, or honor," and allowed that the contesting parties, before referring their dispute to The Hague Court, were to prepare a special protocol, to be ratified according to the laws and customs of the

respective countries. This would preserve the right, for example, of the United States Senate to pronounce on a particular point to be submitted to arbitration in much the same way as it pronounces upon any foreign treaty. The Porter proposition was put forward in July, and

bore no fruits until October, when the report of the First Committee on Obligatory Arbitration adopted the report of Baron Guillaume of Belgium. Under this report the Powers were to associate themselves into an organization to arbitrate upon as many subjects as they might choose from a list which had been drawn up by the Portuguese delegates. This list, which had been revised by the British delegates, was based upon the enumeration proposed by the Interparliamentary Union. The scheme then proceeded as follows: When any two Powers agree upon one of the subjects for obligatory arbitration without reservations that subject becomes open for the adhesion of other Powers, who, by assenting on the same subject, agree in case of dispute to arbitrate with any of those States which have adopted the same course. For example, if Germany and England were to agree on the subject of protection of labor, and France and Spain were likewise to agree on the same subject, this would mean that the first two Powers would have agreed to arbitrate without reservations in all disputes on this subject, not only with one another, but also with France and with Spain. Being first proposed by the American delegation, and worked out in detail by the British, this Anglo-American project was unfortunately not carried unanimously, since against the 31 votes in its favor, there were 9 dissenting votes (Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Germany, Greece, Montenegro, Rumania, Turkey, and Switzerland), and 3 abstaining votes (Italy, Japan, and Luxemburg). The only measure that was adopted on October 7 was an article providing for the offer of the good offices of The Hague Court in case of a threatened conflict between two nations. This article, which was one of those in the Convention of 1899 for the peaceful regulation of international disputes, was amended so as to give a certain prerogative to the International Court for the communication of friendly advice.

Fi

At the ninth plenary sitting of the Conference on October 16, the First Committee, which was constituted to consider the development of the system of arbitration established by The Hague Convention, put forward the following declaration, which was unanimously adopted: "The committee is unanimous (1) in recognizing the principle of obligatory arbitration; (2) in declaring that certain differences, and notably those which relate to the interpretation and application of conventional stipulations between nations, are susceptible of submission to obligatory arbitration without any restriction. nally, the committee is unanimously agreed to proclaim that, if it has not been privileged to conclude forthwith a Convention in this sense, those divergences of opinion which have shown themselves have not passed the bounds of a juridical controversy, and that in working here together during the period of four months all the States of the world have not only learned to understand one another and to draw closer together, but have been able in the course of this long collaboration to evolve a very lofty sense of the common welfare of humanity."

The United States delegation refused to vote in favor of this declaration, Mr. Choate declaring that this refusal was justified because of the "unworthiness of this feeble result of the Arbitration Commission's work." In spite of the practical failure of the second Hague Conference to establish a Court of Obligatory Arbitration,