pared with special reference to their use in secondary and elementary schools, were available prior to 1915. There were also Federal and State bulletins giving outlines of courses in agriculture for secondary schools and instructions for teaching this subject. Textbooks and manuals prepared for college students and informational bulletins of the United States Department of Agriculture and the State experiment stations were abundant. Short courses at the agricultural colleges were open to teachers, especially during the summer. Some high-school teachers, especially those trained in the sciences, who were thoroughly interested in teaching agriculture and made the best of their opportunities for acquiring knowledge of this subject, taught it with great success. But in very many cases the instruction in agriculture in the ordinary high schools during this period was textbook work, and often it was merely a small supplement to the instruction in one or two natural sciences.

AGRICULTURE IN PRIVATE SECONDARY SCHOOLS

Secondary schools on a private foundation early began to introduce the teaching of agriculture. Among these was the National Farm School at Doylestown, Pa., established in 1896, with special reference to the training of city boys. This school was so successful that in 1901 the State gave it an appropriation of $2,500 annually for two years, which was afterwards increased. Its equipment included a farm of 122 acres, a main building, barn, greenhouses, and livestock. The course covered four years. The science and practice of agriculture were taught, together with English, mathematics, and natural science, and the boys did much of the labor on the farm.

The Agricultural and Technical Institute at Winona Lake, Ind., founded in 1902, introduced agriculture, a graduate of Purdue University teaching that subject. In 1906 this institution was reorganized as an agricultural school, with a 2-year course, given in three departments, (1) agriculture and chemistry, (2) dairying and animal husbandry, and (3) horticulture and forestry.

The Mount Hermon School, near Northfield, Mass., founded by D. L. Moody, established in 1903 an agricultural department and put at its head Harry Hayward, assistant chief of the Dairy Division of the United States Department of Agriculture and a graduate of that school.

Smith's Agricultural School and Northampton School of Technology, at Northampton, Mass., resulted from provisions in the will of Oliver Smith in 1844. Those relating to an agricultural school did not make the fund for this purpose available before December 22, 1905, at which time it amounted to $310,000.

This school has two large brick buildings, a farm house, a barn, and a farm of 93 acres, but no dormitories. It is open to boys and girls. For admission preference is given to those students who have completed elementary courses, but others may be admitted on trial. The academic subjects taught are English, general mathematics, general history of industry, United States history, citizenship, economics of production, exchange and distribution, first aid, personal hygiene and social problems. Approximately half of each pupil's time is spent in shops, laboratories, workrooms, and outside productive

work; the other half is spent in class room study. Agricultural subjects are taught by the director, the head of the agricultural department, and the farm superintendent. The agricultural course occupies four years of 32 weeks. The school opened with departments of agriculture, household arts, and trades. The latter has since been divided into departments of carpentry, sheet metal, silk textiles, and automobiles.

The Illinois College at Jacksonville, Ill., began secondary work in agriculture in 1908 as the result of a bequest of $20,000 for this purpose by Mrs. Phoebe G. Strawn. Courses were offered in soil fertility and fertilizers, soil physics, agricultural botany, and agricultural zoology. This work was supplemented with occasional lectures by agricultural experts. The first lecture was given by Dean Davenport, of the University of Illinois.

In Vermont in 1910 a secondary school of agriculture was opened at Lyndonville. This resulted from donations by Theodore N. Vail, president of the American Telephone & Telegraph Co., who provided a small farm with its buildings and funds for the agricultural instruction. He also permitted the students of this school to utilize his large estate on the hills near Lyndonville for observation and judging of his dairy herd, studies in farm forestry, etc. A 2-year course in scientific and practical agriculture was offered, with special reference to Vermont conditions. This course extended over nine months in each year and was open to residents of the State eligible for admission to an approved high school. Students might pay their expenses in cash or by working on the school farm throughout the year.

From 1908, when the Office of Experiment Stations reported that there were 16 private colleges and schools teaching agriculture, the introduction of this subject into private schools proceeded rapidly. In 1915-16 the Bureau of Education reported that some instruction. in agriculture was given in 12 private agricultural secondary schools and 149 private secondary schools in 37 States.

GENERAL STATUS OF SECONDARY EDUCATION IN AGRICULTURE IN 1916

During the 25 years beginning about 1890 there was a new and rapidly growing movement for the establishment of schools and courses in agriculture of secondary grade in a great variety of institutions. When the United States Bureau of Education made a survey of the status of this movement for the school year 1915-16 it found that secondary instruction in agriculture was given in the following classes of institutions:

1. Secondary schools of agriculture at State agricultural colleges..

28

2. Public normal schools (not including 27 county teacher-training schools in Wisconsin) –

124

3. Special agricultural schools receiving State aid_

74

4. Vocational agricultural departments in public high schools under State supervision____.

421

The statistics for number of students pursuing agricultural courses were incomplete. At the secondary schools in the agricultural colleges there were 3,958 students; in the State-aided special schools, 6,643; in the public high schools, 60,925; and in the private schools (not special), 2,001. It thus appears that more than 73,000 students in secondary schools in the United States received more or less instruction in agriculture during that year. The movement had, however, far outrun the ability of the colleges and normal schools to supply an adequate number of teachers trained in agriculture. Under such conditions the inevitable result was that agricultural instruction in many schools became merely cultural or informational and involved mainly textbook work. On the other hand in a limited number of schools the agricultural instruction became more vocational, bettertrained teachers were employed, and laboratory and practice work at the schools or on home farms was required.

During this period manual training and home economics had been introduced into many of the schools where agriculture was taught and also into many other secondary schools throughout the United States. But the instruction in these subjects had also not had the distinct vocational results which had been anticipated. Hence a demand arose for a more definite type of industrial education for students coming out of the elementary schools. Propaganda to secure State and Federal aid for vocational education increased in intensity and extent. The movement for secondary agricultural education became involved in the broader movement for education relating to all the industries.

DEVELOPMENT OF SECONDARY EDUCATION IN AGRICULTURE WITH FEDERAL AID, 1917-1925

The Smith-Hughes Vocational Education Act was approved by President Wilson February 23, 1917. It is permanent legislation and carries annually large amounts of Federal funds for instruction in agriculture, home economics, and trades and industries to persons over 14 years of age. This act and the Smith-Lever Agricultural Extension Act passed in 1914 were the outcome of an active movement for vocational education below college grade carried on for more than a decade by agricultural and industrial forces, especially as represented by the Association of American Agricultural Colleges and Experiment Stations and the National Society for Industrial Education. The activities of the forces seeking Federal aid for vocational education were more or less interrelated. Therefore to understand the full significance of the movement it is necessary to consider its industrial as well as its agricultural features.

RISE OF THE MOVEMENT FOR INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION

During the nineteenth century there were in a few places in the United States efforts to provide distinctly vocational training of elementary or secondary grade. Such, for example, were the Girard College in Philadelphia (1848), the mechanics institutes in New York City (1820), Cincinnati (1828), Richmond, Va. (1854), and Rochester, N. Y. (1856); the Miller School in Albemarle County, Va. (1878), the institutes for negroes at Hampton, Va. (1868), and

Tuskegee, Ala. (1880); the evening classes of the Franklin Institute in Philadelphia (1824), the Cooper Union in New York City (1859), the industrial school in Boston (1848), and the trade school in Lowell, Mass. (1872).

Manual training in city high schools after 1880 had some vocational features but was mainly of general educational value. Meanwhile the apprenticeship system as a preparation for industrial work was passing away. Increasing numbers of boys and girls were leaving the high schools without preparation for any industry. Many of these youths were drifting into the "blind alley" occupations or into criminality. The great corporations which employed many workers in mechanic arts were seeking substitutes for the apprenticeship system. From 1904 the National Association of Manufacturers had a committee on industrial education, which repeatedly urged the establishment of trade schools. The National Metal Trades Association discussed this subject in 1910 and contributed $1,000 to the National Society for the Promotion of Industrial Education. A convention of persons interested in trade schools was held at Indianapolis in 1907. The labor unions, which at first had opposed industrial schools for fear they would turn out too many trained workers for different trades, were beginning to realize the importance and desirability of a carefully guarded public system of vocational education of secondary grade. In 1907 the American Federation of Labor adopted a resolution favoring industrial and technical education and the following year created a committee, which reported in favor of such education under public control and with Federal aid. Educators, publicists, and industrial leaders were awakening to the importance of training American youth for industrial pursuits and were watching with increasing interest the efforts of European countries, especially Germany, to maintain an adequate supply of skilled workers in industries with the aid of vocational schools. The National Education Association began the discussion of industrial education in 1900, which was continued at succeeding meetings, especially through the work and reports of committees. In 1908 this association approved trade schools, industrial schools and evening continuation schools and in 1912 created a committee of educators, employers, employees, and social workers to study the needs of adolescents for vocational guidance and education.

THE MASSACHUSETTS COMMISSION ON INDUSTRIAL AND TECHNICAL

EDUCATION

The Massachusetts Legislature by an act of May 24, 1905, provided for a commission on industrial and technical education (179), consisting of nine persons "representing the manufacturing, agricultural, educational, and labor interests" to "investigate the needs for education in the different grades of skill and responsibility in the various industries in the Commonwealth. They shall investigate how far the needs are met by existing institutions and shall consider what new forms of educational effort may be advisable," taking into account "similar educational work done by other States, by the United States Government, and by foreign governments." This commission of eight men and one woman, with Carroll D. Wright as

chairman, made its report in April, 1906. They had studied the problems of industrial education as related to both the children and the industries. They found a general and theoretical interest among educators and students of social phenomena and "a practical and specific interest among manufacturers and wage earners because of a personal need."

Children going into industrial pursuits from the elementary schools wasted three or four years before attaining productive efficiency, and even if they completed a high-school course they lacked manual skill and "industrial intelligence."

The commission recommended that instruction and practice in the elements of productive industry, including agriculture and the mechanic and domestic arts, should be given in the elementary schools for both cultural and industrial purposes, that in the high schools "instruction in mathematics, the sciences, and drawing shall show the application and use of these subjects in industrial life" and elective industrial courses in the principles of agriculture and the domestic and mechanic arts should be provided, and that evening and part-time industrial courses should also be established.

To carry out this plan a State commission on industrial education was proposed, and to aid in the establishment of industrial schools and classes the State was asked to pay annually from one-fifth to one-half of their cost proportionate to the amount expended from local taxes for these purposes. An act embodying these proposals was passed in 1906, but in 1909 charge of industrial education was given to the reorganized State board of education, under which were a commissioner of education and two deputy commissioners, one of whom must be especially qualified to deal with industrial education.

THE NATIONAL SOCIETY FOR THE PROMOTION OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION

The first report of the Massachusetts Commission on Industrial Education created widespread interest in this subject. Soon after its publication James P. Haney, director of manual training in the public schools of New York City, and Charles R. Richards, director of the department of manual training in Teachers College of Columbia University, "came to the conclusion that the time had come to secure united action concerning industrial education." They brought together 11 other men in New York June 9, 1906, and this company appointed a committee on organization. As a result of their efforts about 250 persons met at Cooper Union November 16, 1906, and formed the National Society for the Promotion of Industrial Education (52). New York, Chicago, Boston, Philadelphia, Milwaukee, Cincinnati, Raleigh, and other cities were represented at this meeting. Henry S. Pritchett, then president of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, was elected president of the society, and Professor Richards was made secretary. Among the members of its first board of managers were Doctor Haney, Frank A. Vanderlip, Jane Addams, James P. Munroe, S. B. Donnelly (secretary of the general arbitration board of the New York building trades), Mrs. M. M. Kehew (a member of the Massachusetts Commission on Industrial Education), and Frederick P. Fish (president of the American Telephone