of institutions controlled by particular denominations. There was considerable ebb and flow in this sentiment, and in the different States it was modified from time to time by the racial and denominational make-up of the population.

In general, the English system of schools was adopted in this country by the early colonists from Great Britain. This included the elementary or "dame school," the grammar or secondary school, and the college. The elementary schools were at first privately maintained by tuition or in part by voluntary contributions, but in New England soon began to receive public money through the action of the town meetings. The first school in North America to receive public funds by vote of the town was established in Dorchester, Mass., in 1639. In this case the money was obtained from rental charges imposed on people occupying land belonging to the town. On January 1, 1645, the town meeting at Dedham, Mass., voted unanimously to raise £20 for the maintenance of a free school. In his textbook of the History of Education, Monroe says:

Many of the New England schools received their support from a variety of sources, such as the sale or rental of public lands, rental from fish weirs, from ferries, from bequest and private gift, from subscription, from local rates, and in nearly all cases from tuition of students (48).

In 1647 the Massachusetts Bay Colony passed a general law requir ing that an elementary school should be established in every town of 50 families, and a Latin school in every town of 100 families. A similar law was passed by the Connecticut Colony in 1650. On this basis many schools were established in the New England Colonies during the next 100 years.

About 1700, when community centers of population had become established in many towns, while means of transportation remained very inadequate, a demand arose for the equalization of school privileges. To satisfy this demand the elementary school was sometimes moved about and held for a short period in from two to six places in the town during the year. This "moving school" led to the creation of permanent school districts.

Outside of New England support of education with public funds was chiefly confined to the higher institutions and the establishment of general systems of public schools was long delayed.

PUBLIC SUPPORT OF EARLY AMERICAN COLLEGES

The colleges in the American Colonies and some of the States formed early in the history of the United States in many cases received public aid through grants of land or money. A number of these institutions became land-grant colleges after the passage of the Morrill Act of 1862.

In Franklin's proposals for an academy in Philadelphia in 1749, he recommended a liberal course of study and even suggested that a little gardening, planting, grafting, and inoculating be taught and practiced, and now and then excursions made to the neighboring plantations of the best farmers." Out of the academy grew the college which later became the University of Pennsylvania. The curriculum framed by the first provost of the college, William Smith, in 1754, included the chemistry of agriculture.

State funds were loaned to the University of Pennsylvania and $3,000 was granted in 1807 for a botanical garden and experiments to ascertain the best and cheapest food for plants and their medicinal properties and virtues. In Massachusetts when Harvard College was founded in 1636 the colonial legislature agreed to give £400, which was the first time "the people by their representatives ever gave their own money to found a place of learning." For some reason this money was not paid to the college but later it received the income of a ferry and direct grants of money. A bank tax, created in 1814, was divided for 10 years among Harvard, Bowdoin, and Williams Colleges, all of which also received grants of land. Dartmouth College in New Hampshire, King's College in New York, and William and Mary College in Virginia, received grants of land before the Revolution, and the University of Georgia soon after that war. St. John's College and Washington College in Maryland, the University of Virginia, and South Carolina College regularly received State appropriations from the time of their establishment.

SUMMARY OF METHODS OF STATE AID TO EDUCATION

In his History of Federal and State Aid to Higher Education, Doctor Blackmar thus summarized the methods of State aid:

The principal ways in which the several States have aided higher education may be enumerated as follows: (1) By granting charters with privileges; (2) by freeing officers and students of colleges and universities from military duty; (3) by exempting the persons and property of the officers and students from taxation; (4) by granting land endowments; (5) by granting permanent money and endowments by statute law; (6) by making special appropriations from funds raised by taxation; (7) by granting the benefits of lotteries; and (8) by special gifts of buildings and sites. Nearly all of these methods originated among the colonies and were adopted by the States.

An historical retrospect of the relation of the State to education may be presented in a few propositions, as follows: (1) In colonial times State, private. and church benevolence worked together; (2) subsequently private and church schools were prominent, still being aided by State appropriations; (3) the gradual cessation of State aid to private and church schools, and the growth of State universities (9).

BEGINNING OF FEDERAL AID TO EDUCATION

The disposition of the vast areas of land west of the Allegheny Mountains engaged the attention of Washington and other statesmen. even before the close of the Revolutionary War. On October 10, 1780, Congress passed a resolution that the western territory ceded by the States should be disposed of for the common benefit of all the States and that the manner and conditions of the sale of these lands should be exclusively regulated by Congress. This was followed by the ordinance of 1785, which contained a clause reserving from sale "lot No. 16 of every township for the maintenance of public schools within the said township." The importance of this provision was not recognized at the time of its passage, but it established a precedent of far-reaching influence in later years and marks the beginning of a policy of using public lands for public education. The ordinance of 1787 for the government of the Northwest Territory contained the declaration that "religion, morality, and knowledge being necessary

to good government and the happiness of mankind, schools and the means of education shall forever be encouraged."

Without doubt the great significance of the educational provision in the ordinance of July 13, 1787, was not appreciated by Congress or the public. The Constitutional Convention was in session in Philadelphia at that time, and the proceedings of the old Confederation Congress in New York received scant attention in the press. This ordinance made no grants of land for education, but laid the foundation for a general development of free public education throughout the United States.

It was immediately followed by the ordinance of July 23, 1787, for the sale of public lands in Ohio, under which section 16 in each township was to be reserved for the maintenance of public schools and "not more than two complete townships to be given perpetually for the purpose of a university."

Congress granted lands for schools to Ohio when it became a State in 1802 and for a university in 1803. Similar grants of land for educational purposes were made by Congress from time to time to the Territories and States formed in the Northwest Territory and beginning with 1803 in Tennessee to the new States in the South and West.

About 1820 was begun the practice of granting to each State on admission two townships of saline lands and from 3 to 5 per cent of the net proceeds of the sale of all public lands within its borders. These grants of land and money were in many cases used at least in part for education. By the internal improvement act of 1841, 500,000 acres of public lands were given to each State admitted after 1800 and these grants were devoted to education after 1845. In 1850 the swamp land grant act was passed under which 15 States received over 60,000,000 acres. In 12 States a part or all of the proceeds from the sale of these lands was given to education.

WASHINGTON'S PROPOSALS FOR A NATIONAL UNIVERSITY

In the Constitutional Convention of 1787, over which Washington presided, Charles Pinckney, of South Carolina, offered a plan for a Federal Constitution which contained a clause authorizing Congress "to establish and provide for a national university at the seat of government of the United States," and in the discussion of the Randolph constitution Pinckney and Madison moved to give Congress power to establish an university," but this was not adopted.

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In that year and the next somewhat detailed plans for a national university were published by Dr. Benjamin Rush, of Philadelphia. Among the subjects of instruction were to be "agriculture in all the numerous and extensive branches," and "those parts of natural philosophy and chemistry which admit of an application to agriculture."

In his first message to Congress in 1790 Washington suggested that science and literature might be promoted by "the institution of a national university," and in 1796 he definitely recommended_the establishment of such an institution. The Commissioners of the District of Columbia thereupon asked Congress to provide for the acceptance of donations for this purpose, and on December 21, 1796, Mr.

Madison, from the committee to which this matter had been referred, reported in favor of such action.

The project for a national university was revived in 1806 when Jefferson was President. Madison was in his Cabinet, and Samuel Latham Mitchill was "one of his strongest supporters in Congress." Interest in this subject was brought about by Joel Barlow, a graduate of Yale in 1778, who had considered this matter during a long residence in Paris. On his return to the United States in 1805 he prepared a prospectus of a national institution, which was first published January 24, 1806, in an anonymous pamphlet and later in that year in the National Intelligencer at Washington (106). This institution, supported by public and private funds, was to have for its objects" the advancement of knowledge by associations of scientific men, and the dissemination of its rudiments by the instruction of youth." It might well be the "depository of the results of scientific research; of experiments in arts, manufactures, and husbandry, and of discoveries by voyages and travels." "No rudiment of knowledge should be below its attention."

The chancellor and trustees of the institution "shall establish a central university, at or near the seat of government, and such other universities, colleges, and schools of education as the funds of the institution will enable them to do, whether in the city of Washington or in other parts of the United States." Included in the equipment of the institution were to be "gardens for botany and agricultural experiments."

Barlow's prospectus was widely circulated and attracted so much favorable attention that he drafted a bill for the incorporation of the institution. This was introduced in the Senate by Mr. Logan, of Philadelphia, but was buried in the committee to which it was referred.

Part 2. DEVELOPMENT OF A DEFINITE MOVEMENT FOR AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES, AND SOME OF THE AGENCIES CONTRIBUTING TO THIS MOVEMENT, 1820 TO 1860

In the period from about 1820 to 1860 great changes occurred in the political, social, and economic life of the people of the United States. There was a wide movement of population to the fertile lands beyond the eastern mountains and 20 new States were created. In this great region of virgin soil there was little difficulty in obtaining bountiful crops with the ordinary methods of agriculture. The settlers were therefore chiefly engrossed in solving the other problems of pioneer life and developing means of transportation. The building of roads, bridges, and canals, and then of railroads and telegraph lines, involving the work of great numbers of administrators, engineers, mechanics, and laborers, was done on a large scale during this period.

In both the old and new communities of the South agriculture, carried on largely with slave labor, was the predominant industry. After the invention of the cotton gin, cotton growing developed rapidly and became much more extensive as the use of cotton fabrics at home and abroad was vastly increased through the development of water and steam power, invention of improved machinery, and organization of the factory system.

Writing of the change of sentiment regarding agriculture at the beginning of this period Professor Babson, of the Massachusetts Agricultural College, says:

Just as the country was well started toward helpful discussions and improvements along agricultural lines the second war with England placed many hindrances in the way of further progress in this direction, and those hindrances were subsequently strengthened by the varied growth of manufacturing facili ties and wealth-seeking industries. The tendencies of the times were cityward, and the era of good feeling naturally became an era unfavorable to great agricultural advancement. Nevertheless, the farmers and their friends, clearly understanding the unsatisfactory state of affairs, did what they could in spite of the indifference of the general public regarding their efforts.

GROWTH OF AGRICULTURAL SOCIETIES

Local and county agricultural societies continued to be organized and spread over the country with the progress of settlement westward. In 1852 it was estimated that there were about 300 active organizations in the 31 States and 5 Territories, and in 1860 there were 941 agricultural organizations recorded in the books of the United States Agricultural Society. The movement to establish State societies proceeded slowly, but such societies were established during this period in Connecticut, Kentucky, Michigan, New Hampshire, Pennsylvania, and Wisconsin.

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