used. A passenger ill in his berth receives only such attention as the mercy and sympathy of his fellow-travelers supply.

After what has already been said, it is scarcely necessary to consider separately the observance of the provision for the maintenance of order and cleanliness in the steerage quarters and among the steerage passengers. Of what practical use could rules and regulations by the captain or master be, when their enforcement would be either impossible or without appreciable result with the existing accommo dations? The open deck has always been decidedly inadequate in size. The amendment to section 1 of the passenger act of 1882, which went into effect January 1, 1909, provides that henceforth this space shall be 5 superficial feet for every steerage passenger carried. On one steamer showers of cinders were a deterrent to the use of the open deck during several days. On another a storm made the use of the open deck impossible during half the journey.

The only seats available were the machinery that filled much of the deck.

Section 7 of the law of 1882, which excluded the crew from the compartments occupied by the passengers except when ordered there in the performance of their duties, was found posted in more or less conspicuous places. There was generally one copy in English and one in the language of the crew. It was never found in all the several languages of the passengers carried, although if passengers of one nationality should understand this regulation it is equally important that all should.

Considering this old-type steerage as a whole, it is a congestion so intense, so injurious to health and morals, that there is nothing on land to equal it. That people live in it only temporarily is no justification of its existence. The experience of a single crossing is enough to change bad standards of living to worse. It is abundant opportunity to weaken the body and implant there germs of disease to develop later. It is more than a physical and moral test; it is a strain. And surely it is not the introduction to American institutions that will tend to make them respected.

The common plea that better accommodations can not be maintained because they would be beyond the appreciation of the emigrant and because they would leave too small a margin of profit, carries no weight in view of the fact that the desired kind of steerage already exists on some of the lines and is not conducted as a philanthropy or a charity.

THE NEW-TYPE STEERAGE.

There is nothing striking in what this new-type steerage furnishes. On general lines it follows the plans of the accommodations for second-cabin passengers. The one difference is that everything is simpler proportionately to the difference in the cost of passage. Unfortunately the new type of steerage is to be found only on those lines that carry emigrants from the north of Europe. The number of these has become but a small per cent of the total influx.

Competition was the most forceful influence that led to the development of this improved type of steerage and established it on the lines where it now exists. An existing practical division of the territory from which the several transportation lines or groups of

• See pp. 598–600.

such lines draw their steerage passengers lessens the possibility of competition as a force for the extension of the new type of steerage to all emigrant-carrying lines. Legislation, however, may complete what competition began.

The new-type steerage may again be subdivided into two classes. The better of these follows very closely the plan of the second-cabin arrangements; the other adheres in some respects to the old-type steerage. These resemblances are chiefly in the construction of berths and the location and equipment of dining rooms. The two classes will not be considered separately, but the differences in them will be noted. The segregation of the sexes in the sleeping quarters is observed in accordance with the law much more carefully in the new type of steerage than in the other. Women traveling without male escorts descend one hatchway to their part of the deck; men descend another, and families still another. Further privacy is secured by inclosed berths or staterooms. The berths are sometimes exactly like those in the old-type steerage in construction and bedding, but the better class are built like cabin berths. The bedding is in some cases not clean, but the blankets are always ample. Staterooms contain from two to eight berths. The floor space between is utilized for hand baggage. On some steamers special provision is made beyond the end of the berths for baggage. There are hooks for clothes, a seat, a mirror, and sometimes even a stationary washstand and individual towels are furnished. Openings below and above the partition walls permit circulation of air. Lights near the ceiling in the passageways give light in the staterooms. In some instances there is an electric bell within easy reach of both upper and lower berths which summons a steward or stewardess in case of need.

On some steamers stewards are responsible for complete order in the staterooms. They make the berths and sweep or scrub floors as the occasion requires. The most important thing is that the small rooms secure a greater degree of privacy and give seclusion to families. On most steamers some large compartments still remain. These are occupied by men passengers when traffic is heavy.

In spite of the less crowded conditions the air is still bad. Steamers that are models in other respects are found to have air as foul as the worst. The lower the deck the worse the air. Though bearing no odors of filth, it is heavy and oppressive. It gives the general impression of not being changed as often as it should be. Passengers who are able to go up on the open deck, and thus experience the difference between fresh air and that below, find it impossible to remain between decks long, even to sleep. The use of the open deck generally begins very early in the morning. Where there are not stationary washstands in the staterooms, and their presence is still the exception and not the rule, lavatories separate for the two sexes are provided. These are generally of a size sufficient to accommodate comfortably even more persons than there are basins. Roller towels are provided, and sometimes soap. The basins are of the size and shape most commonly used. They may be porcelain and cleaned by a steward, or they may be of a coarse metal and receive little care. The waterclosets are of the usual construction-convenient for use and not difficult to maintain in a serviceable condition. Floors are at all times clean and dry. Objectionable odors are destroyed by disinfectants. Bath tubs and showers are occasionally provided, though

their presence is seldom advertised among the passengers, and a fee is a prerequisite to their use.

Regular dining rooms appropriately equipped are included in the ship's construction. Between meals these are used as general recreation rooms. A piano, a clock regulated daily, and a chart showing the ship's location at sea may be other evidences of consideration for the comfort of the passengers.

On older vessels the dining room occupies the center space of a deck, inclosed or entirely open, and with the passage between the staterooms opening directly into it; the tables and benches are of rough boards and movable. The tables are covered for meals, and the heavy white porcelain dishes and good cutlery are placed, cleared away, and washed by stewards. The food is also served by the stewards.

On the newer vessels the dining rooms are even better. In equipment they resemble those of the second cabin. The tables and chairs are substantially built and attached to the floor. The entire width of a deck is occupied. This is sometimes divided into two rooms, one for men, the other for women and families. Between meals men may use their side as a smoking room. The floors are washed daily. The desirability of eating meals properly served at tables and away from the sight and odor of berths scarcely needs discussion. The dining rooms, moreover, increase the comfort of the passengers by providing some sheltered place, besides the sleeping quarters, in which to pass the waking hours when exposure to the weather on the open deck becomes undesirable. The food on the whole is abundant and when properly prepared wholesome. It seldom requires augmentation from private stores or by purchase from the canteen. The general complaints against the food are that good material is often spoiled by poor preparation; that there is no variety and that the food lacks taste. But there were steamers found where not one of these charges applied. Little children receive all necessary milk. Beef tea and gruel are sometimes served to those who for the time being can not partake of the usual food.

Hospitals were found in accordance with the legal requirements. On the steamers examined there was little occasion for their use. The sterage accommodations were conducive to health, and those who were seasick received all necessary attention in their berths.

With the striking difference in living standards between old and new types of steerage goes a vast difference in discipline, service, and general attitude toward the passengers.

One line is now perhaps in a state of transition from the old to the new type of steerage. It has both on some of its steamers. The emigrants carried in its two steerages, however, do not radically differ in any way.

The replacement of sails by steam, with the consequent shortening of the ocean voyage, has practically eliminated the former abnormally high death rate at sea. Many of the evils of ocean travel still exist, but they are not long enough continued to produce death. At present a death on a steamer is the exception and not the rule. Contagious disease may and does sometimes break out and bring death to some passengers. There are also other instances of death from natural causes, but these are rare and call for no special study or alarm.

The inspection of the steerage quarters by a customs official at our ports of entry to ascertain if all the legal requirements have been observed is, and in the very nature of things must be, merely perfunctory. The inspector sees the steerage as it is after being prepared for his approval, and not as it was when in actual use. He does not know enough about the plan of the vessel to make his own inspection and so he sees only what the steerage steward shows him. The time devoted to the inspection suffices only for a passing glance at the steerage and the method employed does not tend to give any real information, much less to disclose any violations.

These, then, are the forms of steerage that exist at the present time. The evils and advantages of such are not far to seek. The remedies for such evils as now exist are known and proven, but it still remains to make them compulsory where they have not been voluntarily adopted.

THE COASTWISE TRAFFIC.

A certain percentage of the immigrants who are distributed from New York City and other points travel toward their ultimate destination on smaller steamship lines in the coast wise trade. There seems to be no attention whatever paid to the accommodations for, or care of, immigrants on these ships. On one steamer investigated it was found that steerage passengers were carried in a freight compartment, separated from the rest of the vessel only by canvas strips, and that in this compartment the immigrants were not provided with mattresses or bedding. There was practically no separation between the women and the men. On this boat other passengers who pay the same price as do the immigrants have regular berths with mattresses and pillows, and a dining room is provided for their use. There is also separation of the sexes. The negroes who patronize this line are quartered in this compartment and receive for the same price much better treatment than do the immigrants. This line has carried as many as 200 immigrants on one trip in these freight compartments.

On another line, which has accommodations in its ordinary boats for about 50 immigrants, the immigrants can obtain food such as is served to the crew, but the berths are in three tiers, instead of two as on the transatlantic boats. The immigrants are also allowed the freedom of the lower forward deck.

An investigator's description of the hardships of the immigrants on one Hudson River boat is as follows:

Forward of the freight, in the extreme bow of the boat, is an open space. I saw immigrants lying on the floor, also on benches, and some were sleeping on coils of rope, in some cases using their own baggage for head rests.

Conditions on the other line from New York to Albany were found to be similar, though in neither case was there any excuse for the crowding, as there was plenty of room on the boats.

Of a vessel in the coastwise trade an investigator's notes read as follows:

There was no attempt to separate the men from the women, and upon going into the sleeping quarters I found the women and men in all states of dress and undress (mostly the latter). Hot nights they slept on deck.

Sunday, at midnight, some man crept into the Polish woman's bunk and attempted an assault, but her cries drove him off.

Monday night about the same time, presumably the same man, now acknowledged to be a member of the crew-this information I obtained by talking to members of the crew-attempted, and perhaps succeeded, in assaulting the same

woman.

The captain started an investigation, but what came of it I was unable to learn, as the matter was hushed up.

It is fair to state that this charge was taken up by the proper authorities, but that no further evidence could be obtained. The quarters of that particular boat were clean and well kept and the food fair.

It is satisfactory to learn that upon the steamers of the Panama Railroad and Steamship Line, practically owned and operated by the United States Government, the conditions and discipline were found to be good, the only complaint being as to the food, which was said to be of very poor quality and of very scanty allowance on one of the boats.

The general comment to make in relation to this class of transportation seems to be that the welfare of the immigrant is left entirely to the companies. If the line is humane and progressive, the immigrants are well treated. If it is not, the immigrants suffer accordingly. In all probability the condition of the immigrants on these ships could be made much better by the enforcement of existing statutes.