schools, and of selecting a site and erecting a suitable building

*

* to accommodate the pupils of schools to be vacated." If a majority is in favor of either of these proceedings the board shall carry out the decision. (Ibid., sec. 704, as amended 1903.)

A few instances of consolidation are reported by county superintendents.

OHIO.

In 1894 a special law was passed authorizing centralization and transportation in Kingsville, Ashtabula County. The succeeding legislature passed a measure applicable to the counties of Stark, Ashtabula, and Portage. In 1898 the law was made general, and in 1900 further amended. As it now stands (1902) boards of education may submit to a vote the question of township centralization, and must submit it upon petition of one-fourth the electors. (Ohio Sch. Laws, 1900, secs. 2931, 2932.) A graded school must be maintained in centralized townships, and a high school course of not less than two years is authorized. Transportation must be furnished all pupils living more than three-fourths of a mile from the central building. (Secs. 3921-3928.)

An act of 1867, as amended in 1902, provides that a board of education, when, in its opinion, for the best interests of the pupils, may suspend any or all subdistrict schools under its jurisdiction, and convey the pupils to some other school or schools in the same or an adjoining district. (Laws of Ohio, 1902, p. 221.) "Under this section the schools of a township can be centralized without submitting the question to the electors." (State School Commissioner.)

"More townships each year approve it [centralization], and always with the same result." (Ohio Rep., 1901, p. 18.)

The centralized schools of Ohio have attracted much attention, and have been made the subject of frequent reports by visitors from other States. See references on page 2353.

PENNSYLVANIA.

A law (dating from 1897) authorizes directors to provide transportation for the children at the public expense to and from any school of their own district or of a neighboring district, but only for pupils of schools that have been closed by reason of small attendance, and who will have a greater distance to travel than before, and with the proviso that the cost of transportation per pupil shall not exceed the cost of maintaining the schools so closed. No school official may be a party to any contract for conveying children. (Pa. Sch. Laws, 1901, Secs. CXXX, CXXXI.)

An act of 1901 requires township boards, upon petition of a majority of the electors representing one-fourth the assessed valuation, to submit to the electors the question of township centralization, which is carried by a majority vote. (Sec. CXXXIII.) A graded course must be maintained in centralized townships, and a high school course of not less than two years is authorized. Transportation must be furnished all pupils living more than three-fourths of a mile from the central building. (See. CXXXVI.)

There is a loss of upward of $50 in the State appropriation for every school which is closed. * * * So far as one can see from the reports which have reached the department, the act of April 25, 1901, has not borne much fruit in the centralization of schools in country districts, and further legislation will be necessary if this idea is ever to be generally realized in the sparsely settled sections of our State. (Pa. Rep., 1901, p. vii.)

aThe Pennsylvania law is closely modeled, in certain features, after that of Ohio. In each "centralization" of a township is defined as "the abolishment of all subdistricts, and the conveyance of pupils to one or more central schools."

County superintendents report in 1902 a few instances of centralization, but not of a complete township in any case. Superintendent Moxley, of Susquehanna County,

says:

The problem of concentration or centralized schools is engaging the attention of many of our school boards, with a few actually in operation. No complaint comes from districts so consolidated of any hardship to attend the central school, as might be expected. The better school privileges offered more than overcome any hardship they are obliged to undergo in attending the central school.

I can see that it is a question of but a few years before fully one-half of our township schools will be brought into one or more central schools. (Pa. Rep., 1902, p. 142.) On the other hand, the superintendent of Lancaster County reports a step backward: In Drumore Township a new school district was established at Fishing Creek. This is the district in which school transportation at the expense of the township was given a trial. For the three years immediately preceding the Fishing Creek children were transported by coach morning and evening to one of the adjoining schools, The increase of pupils in the Harmony district, where these children were received, and the objections of some parents to have their children taken some distance from home when they were entitled to school facilities right in the home neighborhood led the school board to establish a new district and build a house at Fishing Creek. (Pa. Rep., 1902, pp. 93–94.)

RHODE ISLAND.

A law of 1898 authorizes school committees to consolidate any schools that have an average number belonging of less than 12 and provide transportation for pupils. Any town may consolidate three or more ungraded schools. Any district with ungraded school may consolidate with district having graded school. The State pays $100 to each district so consolidated. A few ungraded schools have been consolidated. The conveyance of the children still remains as the great obstacle.

It is a pleasure to note the fact that the small ungraded school seems to be receding. In the number of such schools having less than 20 pupils each there has been a decrease of 13, while there has been more than a corresponding gain in the number having from 20 to 40 pupils. There are still far too many schools having less than 20 pupils apiece, and quite a number having less than 10.

Of course there will be exceptions, but, as a rule, no school of 10 pupils ought to be allowed; it is too small to permit of much of any classification or decent grading, while the lack of numbers kills any enthusiasm in both teacher and pupils.

The efforts made by the general assembly to bring about consolidation of these little schools have met with but a limited response, and yet it is apparent that people are thinking on the subject, and here and there action is taken which tells the way the stream is moving.

The recent creation of a "State board of public roads" by the assembly ought to result in the advancement of the idea of larger schools. Facilities in the line of transportation of children will do more to secure consolidation of schools than almost anything. The establishment of electric roads has already been the means of action in this direction in one town, and others are contemplating action. (R. I. Rep., 1901, p. 73.)

SOUTH DAKOTA.

We understand the school laws of this State are sufficient to allow a school township to try this plan, or even two or more subdistricts may unite their schools into one, so that centralization may be tried in this State at once. (B. D. Kribs, in S. Dak. Rep., 1900, p. 13.)

Although in a few localities action has been taken looking to the establishment of central graded township schools, I regret to report that the movement in that direction is not general. However, much discussion of the proposition has been had in many districts, and many of the smaller schools of the State have been closed and the pupils transported to other schools in the same or other districts. It would seem that evolution, rather than revolution, is to be the method of change which will eventually give us "No school of fewer than 20 pupils, and graded township schools where possible." (S. Dak. Rep., 1902, p. 4.)

A county superintendent reports: "The financial side of the plan is the only thing that can bring it into this [McPherson] county, and as that is favorable, I believe that in a few years we shall have many central schools. We are at least working and hoping for that time to come." (S. Dak. Rep., 1902, p. 100.)

UTAH.

Opinion of attorney-general: "The county commissioners may consolidate two or more school districts, upon the petition of as many residents of such districts as have the care and custody of not less than twenty school children of school age residing therein, or upon the recommendation of the county superintendent; that is to say, if the residents of the territory of which the new district is to be composed, who control twenty school children of school age, or the county superintendent, shall petition to the board of county commissioners, the said board may consolidate the districts set forth in such petition. It is not necessary for the people to vote upon the question. The county commissioners possess ample power under the law to make such consolidation. The power is conferred upon them by section 1801 of the Revised Statutes.” (Utah Rep., 1902, 287.)

VERMONT.

The town system established (Sch. Laws, 1903, sec. 664). "Schools shall be located at such places and held at such times as in the judgment of the [town Loard of] school directors will best subserve the interests of education and give all the scholars of the town equal advantages so far as practicable. The school directors may provide conveyance of scholars from such points as they may designate to and from school at the expense of the town, when in their judgment they deem it advisable, or may pay a reasonable sum for the board of such scholars while in attendance upon school. In case the school directors refuse to provide board or conveyance for scholars residing more than 14 miles from school, when requested so to do by the parent or guardian of any such scholar, an appeal may be had to the selectmen of the town on a petition signed by ten or more resident taxpayers of such town. On receipt of such petition the selectmen shall inquire into the necessity of such conveyance, and determine whether such scholars are receiving the equality of school advantages herein contemplated. They shall make known their decision to the school directors, in writing, whose duty it shall be to provide board or transportation for such scholars when so ordered by the selectmen. Nothing in this act (section) shall be construed as applying to the conveying of scholars attending high schools." (Sec. 685.)

Without doubt, in towns conveniently situated for the purpose it is possible for Vermont to profit by the union of schools and the transportation of pupils. And yet only a few towns have made a success of the plan. Probably no other detail of school administration has caused the directors so much perplexity and has caused so much dissatisfaction among patrons.

There is some misunderstanding of the meaning of the law. As the law is commonly interpreted, directors are empowered to locate schools and furnish conveyance for the practicable equalization of educational advantages, as their judgment directs. In cases of pupils residing more than 14 miles from school an appeal may be made to the selectmen on the refusal of directors to convey pupils. It is not known in this office whether any appeal has been made to the courts to compel conveyance in any case on the ground that it is the intent of the statute to require equal advantages so far as is practicable. Several complaints have been received from parents that suitable conveyance was not furnished and that towns by vote and directors refused to furnish conveyance in cases of 2, 3, and 4 miles, even when schools near the aggrieved had been closed. On the other hand, directors report the difficulty of providing conveyance with the means afforded and of making satisfactory arrangements with certain patrons. Also objection is made in some quarters to the expense.

The aim of the law is excellent. The difficulty of its execution is unfortunate. To provide more equable school advantages in a town is progressive and commendable. There are abundant evidences that many directors have exerted faithful effort to profit by the provisions of the law. The wisdom of further amending the law is

doubtful. Certainly directors should continue to have present powers. tionable whether compulsory conveyance in certain cases would be wise. the wise execution of law must be left to the sober thought of the people. 1902, pp. 23-24.)

It is ques

At best (Vt. Rep.,

WASHINGTON.

* *

*

"Upon receipt of a petition signed by five heads of families of two or more adjoining districts, the county superintendent may organize and establish a conProvision is made for the election of a board of three directors

solidated district."

for the consolidated district. (Sch. Laws, sec. 12, as amended, 1903.)

*

*

District school boards "shall have power, and it shall be their duty: * Twelfth. To provide and pay for transportation of children to and from school when, in their judgment, the best interests of their district will be subserved thereby." (Sch. Laws, sec. 40, amendment of 1903.)

WISCONSIN.

Any school district may make provision for closing its schools ard sending its pupils to adjoining schools, and provide for the payment of tuition and transportation of pupils by taxation. An amendment of 1901 gives the annual meeting power "to vote a tax for the purpose of providing for the free transportation of any or all children residing in the district, by the most direct route, to and from the schoolhouse in the district." (Sch. Laws, Wis., 1901, sec. 430, 16.)

In towns which have adopted the township system the town school board may transport pupils, in their discretion. (Sec. 524.)

As a result of the agitation of this question the experiment of consolidation of small district schools and the transportation of pupils at public expense is being tried in not less than twenty counties in the State. In every case where the conditions have been at all favorable the experiment has proved a success. In these cases pupils have attended school more regularly, usually for longer terms, and have had better instruction, and this without any increased expenditure of money. In many other counties the question is being investigated and a large degree of public interest awakened. As people become familiar with the success of these experiments in different counties, it is hoped that the small schools of from five to ten pupils will disappear by the process of consolidation with other schools. (Wis. Rep., 1902, 22–23.)

TEACHERS' PENSIONS.

In European countries in which the State supervises and directs the elementary schools and regulates the appointment and emolument of teachers laws are in existence which provide for the teachers' support in old age, and even offer relief in cases of breakdown. But while in former years the pensions paid were to a large extent derived from premiums contributed annually or monthly by the teachers themselves, recent legislation in most German States has done away with the teachers' contributions and laid the burden of paying pensions upon communities and the State. The argument advanced was that teachers, as officers of the State, are entitled to pensions the same as all other civil or military officers. Furthermore, that teachers, among all the State's officers, are the ones who deserve the highest consideration, being the best of the State's agencies of conservation, and the ones who are more likely to sacrifice their health in the discharge of their duties. Mutual aid societies and annuity funds established by teachers are therefore declining. The following summary gives the most essential facts:

a In Bavaria the dues paid by teachers vary considerably in the different parts of the Kingdom-i. e., between $1.25 in central Franconia and $25 in lower Palatinate. Also initiation fees are paid. b Lowest amount of salary.

c At pleasure of the Crown.

d In some Crown lands of Austria dues are paid by teachers.

e In Switzerland the cantonal governments are, as a rule, opposed to pensioning teachers. Where it is done, it is the result of local agreement. The teachers themselves maintain annuity funds.

f In Norway pensions are paid to all teachers, but each case is individually decided by Parliament. g In Italy the State pension fund is not large. Hence private annuity funds are numerous. h See last column.

General notes.-The foregoing statements have reference to men teachers. Women teachers are retired, on an average, ten years earlier, and their pensions amount to about 10 to 20 per cent less than those of the men.

In most German States the communities (or the State) make a single relief payment if a teacher is disabled before he reaches the end of the tenth year of servicei. e., the lower age limit. The same practice prevails in Austria and a few other countries.