CHAPTER XXXVI. EDUCATION IN RUSSIA. CONTENTS.-Extent and population of the Empire-Elementary schools-Secondary and higher institutions-Appropriations for education for 1911 and 1912-Movements affecting the peasant class; Government aid for peasant farmers; aids to agricultural development in the Caucasus; encouragement to peasant industries. EXTENT AND POPULATION OF THE EMPIRE. The Russian Empire covers one-seventh of the land area of the globe and in 1912 comprised a population of 171,060,000 (estimates of the Central Statistical Commission). Russia in Europe, with an area less than one-fourth the total, has more than four-fifths of the population. The different divisions of European Russia vary in density of population from 1.4 to 419 inhabitants to a square mile, the average density being 69.2. The density of the Asiatic division of the Empire is only 4.1 inhabitants per square mile. Of the entire population more than half (92,000,000) are Slavs. Lithuanians number about 3,000,000, and other Aryans bring the total to 100,300,000. The Jews, who have played a very important part in the destinies of the Empire, number only 5,070,000; the Ural Altains comprise 17,660,000, and the remainder are distributed between several races. Religion, which has been a determining factor in education throughout the Empire, has made for diversity rather than unity among the people. The established religion of the Empire is the Greco-Russian, officially called the Orthodox faith. The adherents of this church form 70 per cent of the entire population, Mohammedans follow with 10.8 per cent, Roman Catholics 9 per cent, Protestants 5 per cent, and Jews 4 per cent. ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. Under the conditions mentioned, the endeavor to establish a system of public instruction in Russia presents difficulties surpassing those that are encountered in any other nation of Europe. According to the most favorable estimates, the enrollment in elementary schools is only 3 per cent of the population, which is far below the proportion in other European nations, the range being from 14 to 18 per cent in the countries where elementary education is generally diffused. Finland, which differs entirely from the rest of the Russian Empire in respect to education and social progress, is not included in the present consideration. The following table summarizes the statistics of elementary schools given in the latest report of the imperial minister of public instruction: SECONDARY AND HIGHER INSTITUTIONS. In Russia, as in other countries, education is more generally diffused in the cities than in the rural areas, and it is naturally more extended in scope, as the cities enjoy the direct influence of higher institutions. The student body who receive liberal or special education in the universities and higher technical schools rival those of the most advanced nations. Language, literature, science, and art are pursued with intense and passionate ardor by the intellectual classes. The following statement gives the enrollment in secondary and higher institutions at the lastest date reported: The secondary schools of Russia comprise several classes of institutions under different authorities, those pertaining to the ministry of public instruction having the same classification as the corresponding schools of Germany. The latest official statistics, bearing date January 1, 1911, give a total of 124,555 pupils in the gymnasia and progymnasia for boys, and 67,230 in the "real schools." The corresponding schools for girls, which offer generally a special course for teachers, enrolled at that time 259,079 pupils. The students in the secondary schools under other authorities enrolled 123,207 boys and 50,761 girls, making a total enrollment in secondary schools of 624,832 pupils, of whom 314,992 were boys. At the same time there was an estimated attendance at special schools for the blind, deaf and dumb, and in private schools, chiefly denominational, of about 816,000 pupils. Thus it appears that in 1911 there were 7,312,000 pupils in the primary and secondary schools of Russia (Finland not included). The 10 universities of Russia registered 36,147 students in 1912, and the six higher technical institutions about 10,000 students. APPROPRIATIONS FOR EDUCATION FOR 1911 AND 1912. The State appropriations for education in 1911 were as follows: Ministry of public instruction, 91,694,204 rubles ($47,222,410); other ministries for the support of schools, 13,269,204 rubles ($6,833,640)total, 104,563,204 rubles ($56,056,050). The corresponding amounts for 1912 were: Ministry of public instruction, 114,436,072 rubles ($58,934,577); other ministries, 17,289,039 rubles ($8,903,855)— total, 131,725,111 rubles ($67,838,432). For elementary schools alone the ministry of public instruction in 1911 expended 46,083,000 rubles, and the Holy Synod about 15,000,000, making a total of 61,083,000 rubles ($31,457,745). The budget estimates for 1913 included for educational purposes a total of 162,638,975 rubles ($83,759,072), of which 67 per cent was assigned to the ministry of public instruction. MOVEMENTS AFFECTING THE PEASANT CLASS. The peasants, who form 75 per cent of the population of Russia, present both to sociologists and psychologists problems of absorbing interest. This vast body of the people have scarcely yet been touched by the agencies of formal education. At the same time by reason of their numbers and the economic importance of agriculture, the development of the peasants is a matter of great significance. Its necessity was recognized by all thoughtful leaders in 1861, when serfdom was abolished, and it is emphasized by the agrarian revolutions that have marked the recent internal conflicts in the Empire. Hence the most important educational movements in Russia during the last few years are those directly relating to the peasantry. In the movement for the uplift of the rural population Russia is brought into the current of social progress which has spread throughout the civilized world; but in Russia the movement takes a direction peculiar to that country. Everywhere else schools have been centers and effective agents in this movement, but in Russia the schools are wanting. Nor could the deficiency be overcome at once. A measure providing for universal compulsory education, debated in the first and second Dumas and adopted by the latter, was overruled as premature. The establishment of schools goes on, however, and in some regions quite rapidly, through the action of local authorities and private individuals, philanthropists, landed proprietors, and captains of industry, moved by liberal impulses or economic forethought. In the absence of adequate provision for even elementary instruction, the intellectual awakening of the peasant class has been promoted by political and social agitations. The reality and the outcome of these agitations are manifest in the internal upheavals that followed close upon the war with Japan, in the activities of the first and the second Duma, and in the peasant uprisings that have marked the revolutionary conflicts of the present decade. Apart from their excitation of individual minds, these upheavals have resulted in distinct efforts at the reform of rural life and industry. All such efforts have, primarily, political and social aims rather than intellectual and I See Report of Commissioner of Education, 1913, Vol. I, pp. 855-56. moral enlightenment; while these ulterior purposes do not belong to the present consideration, they should be mentioned, because at any moment they may interfere with the measures that are directly educational, and prevent the results which from the standpoint of American experience would naturally be expected. It should also be considered that these measures are not national in their extent, but limited to particular communes or governments. Notwithstanding these restrictions, great significance attaches to the educational endeavors in behalf of the rural population, which are illustrated by the following examples drawn from authentic sources. GOVERNMENT AID FOR PEASANT FARMERS.1 Among the poorer and more backward peasants the primitive wooden plow is still in use, and wooden harrows are often met with. In central Russia rye is cut with sickles; other cereal crops, as a rule, with scythes. Flails are used throughout the country, except in the south, where thrashing is done by means of stones dragged by horses, etc. Agricultural machinery was only introduced a few years ago, but is becoming popular, especially in the south and in western Siberia, where land is abundant and the peasants are well-to-do. The Government has organized experiment stations in various sections of the country, while the zemstvo offers assistance to the peasants through special instructors and agronomists. AIDS TO AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT IN THE CAUCASUS.2 Considerable progress has been made in all branches of agriculture during recent years, and several important steps were taken in 1913 for its improvement. One of these was the appointment by the viceroy of the Caucasus, of a commission of leading agriculturists who are to be assisted by Government specialists in all branches of agriculture. This commission is to assist communal and public bodies in dealing with agricultural questions and in promoting rural industries under the direction of the board of agriculture. The zemstvo agricultural organizations, under the guidance of provincial agriculturists, are to furnish advice to the farmers; district agriculturists, assisted by special instructors, are to attend to the needs of the various districts; and agricultural stations are to be established. It was recommended that meetings be held under the presidency of the provincial governors to discuss agricultural projects. A permanent agricultural commission has been proposed under the presidency of the chief of the agricultural section of the Caucasus, to consist of representatives from the Tiflis botanical garden, the Caucasus sericulture station, the board of agriculture, the zemstvo section of the offices of the viceroy, and other bodies. Projects for agricultural education include an agricultural section in the Tiflis Polytechnic Institute, special intermediate schools for agricultural instruction, and courses in agriculture in the elementary schools. The Caucasus board of agriculture granted about $500,000 in 1913 for the promotion of rural industries, an amount considerably larger than that granted in 1912. Of the total, $300,000 was set aside for research, $35,000 for agricultural organizations, $10,000 for the improvement of live stock, and $20,000 for general measures, such as exhibitions, meetings, statistics, and the destruction of harmful insects. An important innovation was the establishment in September of a refrigerator-car service from different points in the Caucasus, as well as from Turkestan, for the conveyance of fresh fruit and vegetables to northern Russia. 1 From report by John H. Snodgrass, American consul general, Moscow, Jan., 1914. TOBACCO CROP AND PRICES-DEVELOPMENT OF TEA INDUSTRY.' The tobacco crop in the Caucasus in 1913 is estimated to have been between 14,000 and 15,000 tons. The quality was better and prices from 30 to 50 per cent higher than in 1912. Prices for the Trebizond variety ranged from 14 to 26 cents a pound, and of the Samsun varieties from 20 to 50 cents a pound. The crop in Kuban Province amounted to only 4,800 tons, or about half the ordinary crop; but the quality and prices were good, the latter ranging from 6 to 17 cents a pound, or 30 to 50 per cent higher than in 1912. The crop in the Sukhum district was about 6,000 tons, a little less than in 1912. The greater part of the tobacco exported went to Egypt and the remainder to Germany, France, England, and the United States. Continental and Egyptian interests are purchasing tobacco for manufacture abroad. The tea crop for 1913 was fairly good. The yield of raw leaf was 1,174,000 pounds and of manufactured tea 271,000 pounds, as compared with 999,000 and 242,000 pounds, respectively, in 1912. In 1913 several acres were added to the area already under tea belonging to the imperial domains at Tchakva, and tea growing is becoming more general among private individuals. The agricultural society at Batum has decided to construct a tea factory just outside the town, to which tea that is grown in the surrounding districts will be brought for curing. The National Government is assisting the tea industry by distributing plants and seeds in the tea-growing zone and has granted $7,725 for construction work in connection with the factory. Funds have also been assigned for the tea factory that is under construction at Ozurgeti and an instructor has been appointed to manage the factory and instruct the rural population in the art of cultivating tea. Considerable attention is paid to public education in the Caucasus, and there was an increase during the year in the number of schools of all classes. Steps were also taken toward making attendance compulsory. One of the most interesting measures taken was an attempt to establish in the Government of Erivan two movable summer schools for the nomad tribes. Summer employment was also introduced in eight elementary schools of the Kutais government and in two schools of the Black Sea government. A site has been selected for the new polytechnic institute at Tiflis, and the building is to be erected in the near future. It has been decided to organize the institute in four sections-agricultural, chemical, mechanical, and economic. The building of the Caucasian museum and public library at Tiflis is in process of erection, and its completion is expected in 1914. It is of four stories and is to cost about $200,000. ENCOURAGEMENT TO PEASANT INDUSTRIES. In addition to the cultivation of the soil the peasants practice industrial arts which are utilized for their economic betterment. This is done largely through their local organization, which is controlled by a communal assembly (mir), composed of the householders. of the community. These assemblies elect members to the district and provincial assemblies (zemstvos), and they have indirect representation in the Duma. The peasants also have special courts, which in certain matters have the right to follow local usages. It is true that the action of the communal assemblies and of the courts may be overruled by Government officials; but in spite of this restriction, the communal administration affords a center of cooperative action in respect to local matters. 1 From report of American consul. |