the appended list is by no means complete. Furthermore, the list is based on an incomplete collection of reports for the year 1914.

The discussions of departmental organization and differentiated courses found in the reports may be summarized somewhat as follows: Not only educational principles but also certain obvious facts suggest that in the upper grades there should be differentiation of instruction to meet the varying needs of different groups of children. The traditional uniform academic course, with perhaps some little time given to manual training or domestic science, which still prevails in many cities is an arrangement good enough for pupils who are to have a long period of schooling; but much more profitable courses can be offered for pupils whom economic impulse will force into productive work at a comparatively early age. The latter class of pupils are now leaving school at various points from the fourth or fifth grade on, and often just as soon as they reach the legal limit of compulsory schooling. They quit school because of the attraction of wages, it is true, but chiefly because they have natural inclinations that lead away from the bookish interests of pupils destined ultimately to enter the professions; and such unliterary pupils would remain in school longer and receive more adequate training for good citizenship and efficient social service if the school offered, alongside the academic work, parallel courses of industrial, commercial, and domestic instruction. Into the latter lines of activity many pupils will eventually go, and they will prove much more reliable and contented employees if they have received instruction enlightening them in the importance and dignity of callings other than the so-called professions, and if they have been given an introductory training preparing them for the rapid acquisition of skill when they enter particular lines of business or definite trades.

The foregoing considerations point to the desirability of differentiation of school work at the beginning of the seventh grade. Boys and girls certain to go into the high school (and in a number of cases even to college) would continue to pursue through the seventh and eighth grades the present academic studies with the added privilege, entirely optional, however, of beginning a foreign language at the age of 12 to 14 years, when the drill incident to language acquisition is most acceptably undertaken. Pupils, on the other hand, destined to begin work toward self-support at an early age, either in business or in the industrial field, would find in the proposed seventh and eighth grade industrial courses just the sort of instruction and training most interesting to them and most profitable for the future life work to which they are to devote themselves. Moreover, the industrial instruction and practice desired can be developed along either or both of two lines: (1) The prevocational course to awaken interest in industrial pursuits and disclose the natural bent of the pupil; (2) specific trade training courses for those in whose cases decision has been made for this or that leading trade of the community. Finally, the proposed domestic

1 For other lists, see pp. 148-150.

course for seventh and eighth grade classes will afford to many girls the only opportunity they will ever have for systematic instruction toward becoming in the future the efficient home makers that every community so sorely needs.

Differentiation of instruction in the upper grades naturally suggests departmental teaching, because no single teacher can be expected to teach the whole range of subjects included in the group of parallel differentiated courses. Departmental teaching is the plan common in high schools, where several teachers cooperate in the instruction of a group of classes by having the classes pass from teacher to teacher, receiving from each teacher instruction in only a single subject or in but two or three related subjects. This plan of teaching is to be recommended for grammar-grade classes, at any rate for the seventh and eighth grades, whether or not differentiated courses are offered. It is true that departmental teaching in the elementary school has dangers (for example, the overworking of pupils), that must be guarded against; but any competent principal with intelligent assistants, frequently conferring together, can avoid the possible disadvantages of departmental instruction and secure all the real advantages of the plan.

Of these advantages the following may be here enumerated: Better teaching, better equipment, enriched curriculum, promotion by subject, improved physical conditions for pupils, interest and stimulus of several teachers instead of one only, college graduates in grammar grade positions, transition to high-school attitude and methods.

No argument is needed to establish the fact that a teacher can become more expert in her teaching when she has to prepare upon only one subject or a few related subjects, and these subjects also in the line of her special interests, than when she must prepare upon the whole round of subjects now taught in the seventh and eighth grades of any progressive school system. Similarly, it is a great advantage to the pupil to be taken on from grade to grade in a given subject by the same teacher, an expert in the particular subject. Again, no argument is needed to show that a given outlay to purchase equipment for, say, geography instruction, will go much further when applied in the fitting up of a single room, the geography teacher's room, than when divided up among several rooms to give each of several teachers a share of the equipment for her geography lessons. Better teaching and better equipment inevitably bring about an enriched curriculum; for each of the teachers, in learning more and more about her chosen subject and in accumulating more and more equipment, will step by step develop the more important phases of her work and give less attention to or even discard entirely the less important phases; and, moreover, every study in the course, being in the hands of a sort of specialist, will receive its due share of time and attention, and will be taught so as to stir interest and produce truly educative effects. On the other hand, when a pupil has difficulty with any subject, the departmental plan, in affording a medium for promotion by subject, makes it an easy matter to advance this pupil in everything he has been successful with, while at the same time holding him back for review upon the subject only in which he has failed. Pupils also enjoy improved physical conditions under the departmental plan in getting the relief, activity, and variety afforded by moving from room to room as the periods of the day roll by. Many a pupil who finds school irksome and monotonous, or even repellent, under the one-teacher plan, especially with a teacher not of the highest efficiency, will develop a new interest and pleasure in his work under the stimulus of several teachers cooperating in departmental organization.

It is just the departmental organization, moreover, that will bring into the grammar grades scholarly and enthusiastic college graduates, for college graduates entering the school service have quite as lively an interest in seventh and eighth grade children as in high-school pupils; but the task of teaching the whole work of a grade, including subjects quite outside the teacher's special interests, is not attractive to one who has gone to college for the express purpose of getting superior knowledge and training in the two or three selected subjects that the candidate wants to teach.

Finally, and as a consequence of all the foregoing, departmental instruction in grammar grades is an admirable device for mediating the transition from the elementary school to the high school, because under this plan pupils are introduced gradually to high-school methods and assume quite easily the high-school attitude; and although this consideration may be said to apply only to the pupils who go on to the high schools, it is nevertheless an important factor both in determining how many will thus prolong their schooling beyond the eighth grade and also in unifying the whole school syste of a city.

In Ogden the last six years of the course are organized with a longer school day than is customary elsewhere and with the longer day divided into half-day sessions-a half day of academic work and a half day of industrial, social, and physical work, the academic studies being put in each half day and the industrial studies in each half day. Any pupil who can show that he has better industrial, commercial, or other work outside of school than the school program furnishes may be excused from any part of the industrial half day to take his industrial work outside of the school. This plan applics to girls as well as boys. A mother with a large family of children may need her daughter's assistance for an hour or two in the morning or in the afternoon. The girl may be excused for any part of the day for a time not exceeding three and one-half hours without losing any of her academic studies. Before granting excuse each case is carefully investigated to make sure that the home has the proper attitude and that the industrial work which it affords is equal to that which the school offers. Those who can not prove their case remain in the junior high school during the entire session, which begins at 8.30 in the morning and ends at 4.30 in the afternoon. The plan enables the school officers to bring back to the schoolroom many boys and girls who have left school to enter wage-earning occupations, and these pupils may take their academic studies and go on to graduation as rapidly as those who are in school all day. The industrial work they are doing outside is accepted as equal in value to that which others do in school.

THE INTERMEDIATE SCHOOL AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION.

Inasmuch as several reports referred to in the foregoing lay especial emphasis upon another feature of school policy that has become increasingly prominent of late, it seems proper to make mention of them as typical instances of the organization of industrial work in connection with departmental teaching and the intermediate school. Rochester, N. Y., uses the term "junior high school" to designate a school which comprises the seventh, eighth, and ninth grades. As the school population increases, it is the newly adopted policy in that city to build junior high schools in various sections of the city, instead of enlarging existing grammar schools, leaving these schools for the younger pupils of the first six grades. Prior to the adoption of this plan the number of pupils in any one of the grammar schools was so

small as to make practically impossible any differentiation of courses in the upper grades. By the new grouping of upper grade pupils the advantage of departmental instruction and some choice of courses are open to all pupils of grades 7, 8, and 9 throughout the city. Beyond the junior high schools are the senior high schools, two in number, in which the work of the tenth, eleventh, and twelfth years is carried on. In Ogden, Utah, the schools are organized on the 6—2—4 plan, the seventh and eighth grades constituting the junior high school. In Oakland, Cal., the seventh and eighth grades are organized on the departmental plan, some in a separate school known as the intermediate school and others in existing grammar schools in which other grades are also housed. They are known as departmental grammar schools. In these schools 15 hours a week are prescribed, viz, English, 5 hours; arithmetic, 3 hours; music, 2 hours; history and geography, 5 hours. From the following electives 10 or 15 hours a week may be chosen: Drawing, 2 to 5 hours; manual training or domestic science and art, 2 to 10 hours; literature or foreign language, 5 hours. In the intermediate school, 5 hours of science and 5 hours of typing (eighth grade only) will be offered next term. One of the grammar schools is vocational. In this school electives are limited to 5 hours of drawing and 10 to 20 hours of shopwork per week. Credit is given in the high school for the satisfactory completion of work in foreign language in the departmental grammar schools. Owing to the very elementary nature of the instruction thus far given in industrial subjects, high-school credit is not allowed. The plan, however, contemplates advanced standing in these subjects also. A majority of the instructors are university graduates and experienced elementary teachers. Each has been chosen because of special preparation or proficiency. The cost of instruction has been increased, partly because the salary schedule has been increased and partly because more subjects are taught or there is a greater time allotment for electives.

Illustrative program for five classes-Hours per week. Oakland, Cal.

Supt. A. C. Barker says: These schools have not been organized long enough to reach a final conclusion as to their efficiency. The elective system offers a greater opportunity to pupils. It may be questioned whether a pupil should study a foreign language, but if he is ever to study it, he should preferably make a beginning before the high-school age.

The transition state in which many school systems are at present in the matter of organization of grades is well illustrated by Kalamazoo, Mich., where for several years the school authorities have been working toward the senior and junior high-school plan. Departmental schools approaching the junior high-school arrangement had been in operation for 8 or 10 years. The promotion requirements were the same as in the high school, viz, by subject. Hence, a pupil might begin high-school studies before he had finished all of his eighth-grade work. Until 1914, however, there had been but little departure from traditional lines of work in the grammar grades. This year some optional work has been offered with this aim: A chance for pupils to take either Latin or German and hence start on a course of collegiate preparation; a chance for another group to begin work in bookkeeping and typewriting and hence start toward a commercial course; a chance for still another group to begin optional courses in manual training that had hitherto been offered only in the high school. Beginning in September, 1914, the Central High School will enroll the tenth, eleventh, and twelfth grades, and the departmental schools the seventh, eighth, and ninth, while the first six grades will form a separate unit.

Throughout New England it is a common practice to bring together the upper grammar grades in centrally located buildings for convenience and economy in carrying on the departmental system of instruction. As a rule the primary schools are small neighborhood schools, while the grammar schools receiving pupils each from several primary schools are large. The number of grades housed in these centrally located buildings varies according to local conditions. The departmental system of instruction is usually practiced in them whether differentiated courses are offered or not. These organizations approach the intermediate or junior high-school organization, though without any fixed rule as to number of grades. They offer an easy transition to the 6-3-3 plan or the 6-2-4 plan with differentiated courses after the sixth grade, departmental teaching, and promotion by subject. Along with this unsettled condition of intermediate grade organization in New England a change is in progress as to the number of grades below the high school. This is true also of Pennsylvania. Harrisburg is preparing to follow the examples of the other cities in the State. Within the past year Steelton, Lebanon, and Williamsport have changed from nine grades to eight, and only three or four cities still continue under the old nine-grade plan. Salem, Pittsfield, Fall