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dates from 1826 (following several years of desultory work), and 1844 saw the establishment of the Philadelphia School of Design for Women. In 1857 Cooper Union was opened, with a free day school of art for women and evening classes in drawing for men; the Yale School of Fine Arts was organized in 1864; the School of the Art Institute of Chicago is a direct continuation of the old Academy of Design founded in that city in 1867; the Massachusetts Normal Art School was established in 1873; the Art Students' League of New York was organized in 1875.

The Centennial Exposition at Philadelphia in 1876 led to increased interest in art and in art education. The direct outcome was the incorporation of the Pennsylvania Museum and School of Industrial Art in 1876, followed the same year by the School of the Boston Museum of Fine Arts, and in 1879 by the St. Louis School of Fine Arts. The movement spread rapidly, and art schools were organized in the smaller eastern cities and the larger cities throughout the Middle West. The Columbian Exposition at Chicago in 1893 and the Louisiana Purchase Exposition at St. Louis in 1904 gave impetus to the movement. The Panama-Pacific Exposition at San Francisco in 1915 is expected to bring about a similar awakening on the Pacific coast; Los Angeles at one extreme and Portland, Oreg., at the other, already have well-established art schools. October, 1914, witnessed the opening of the Stickney Memorial Art School at Pasadena, Cal.

MANAGEMENT.

The schools are managed in various ways, either as parts of larger organizations or as independent units. The list at the end of this chapter shows their affiliation: (1) Affiliated with art museums; (2) affiliated with art societies; (3) endowed independent art schools, sometimes partly supported by public funds; (4) cooperative; (5) independent art schools maintained by city or State funds only; (6) department of institutions of higher education-university, college, or departmental institution; (7) private enterprises.1

In the art museums the director of the museum is usually principal of the school, with a head of each department responsible for the development of a particular phase of work, and a corps of teachers dividing their time between the different departments. The same division of work exists in all the large schools. At the other extreme are the private schools with only one instructor, and perhaps a visiting teacher.

The management of the Art Students' League of New York is unique. Its affairs are administered by a board of control, the majority of whom are students actually at work in the classes. It is entirely self-supporting, having no endowment fund, and has for over

I See p. 388.

a quarter of a century been run entirely by the tuition fees. The instructors have always been artists of standing. An annual competition for scholarships, open to all art students in the United States and Canada, exclusive of New York City, is held in March of each year. Ten scholarships are awarded, which entitle the recipients to free tuition in any two classes of the league during the following season. The winners in 1914 included three from Buffalo, N. Y.; two from San Francisco, Cal.; one each from Syracuse, N. Y.; St. Paul, Minn.; Washington, D. C.; Boston, Mass.; Cincinnati, Ohio; Denver, Colo.

Many of the art societies maintain classes. Some have fully organized schools; others conduct sketch classes two or three times a week for the benefit of members; and others have evening classes. The chief work of most of the architectural clubs is the maintenance of evening "ateliers," where under the direction of a "patron" the students work out the problems arranged by the Society of BeauxArts Architects. In universities and colleges maintaining separate art departments, instruction is usually under the direction of the head professor of the department, with a corps of instructors under him; in addition the students have the privilege of other courses in the university.

1. ACADEMIC SCHOOLS.1

The courses of instruction in the academic schools are divided into departments of drawing and painting, of sculpture, and of illustration. In each of these departments there is certain prescribed work that must be done, but the departments are closely allied, the advanced students in each being advised to work in the others. The general method of instruction is by criticism of the work done, but the individuality of the student is not repressed by fixed methods. The aim is to help the student to observe accurately and record truthfully what he sees and as he sees it.

In order that students who have had little or no training in drawing may pursue their studies under the easiest conditions and advance naturally to higher work, a preparatory antique course is conducted, which includes drawing from casts of classical sculpture, drawing and painting from still life, and lectures upon composition, perspective, and anatomy. For admission to the antique course, drawings or sketches from the solid object in any medium are required, and applicants may prepare these in the schoolrooms or forward examples made for the purpose.

Classes in drawing and painting.-Work includes drawing and painting from the human figure, drawing and painting from the head, and from still life; also lectures upon composition, perspec

1 This description is based on the announcement of the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts.

tive, and anatomy. Students are admitted to the life and head classes after an examination of their work in drawing from the full length figure, either antique or life. The class in composition is to encourage the student to express his impressions and conceptions. The class meets from week to week to exhibit its work for comparison and open discussion. Mural decoration is given special attention; a subject with definite requirements is offered, and whenever possible students are given an opportunity to decorate a wall space.

Lectures on anatomy are open to students of any course without extra charge. They are frequently illustrated with the stereopticon, with drawings made in the presence of the class by the instructor, and also by means of the living model. Lectures on perspective are open to students of any course without extra charge. The course consists in lectures upon the elements of linear perspective, illustrated by drawings made before the class; exercises upon the same subject and sketching from the solid object and from nature, and in the application of the knowledge thus gained to illustration and painting. The way in which artists of various schools have used the principles of perspective is demonstrated by lantern projections of their works.

Classes in illustration. These provide such practical instruction for the students as will enable them, upon the completion of the course, to enter immediately the professional field of magazine and book illustrating, decoration, and newspaper work. Instruction is given in drawing, in composition, and in the technique of all mediums- pen, charcoal, black and white, tempera, and oil. There is special work from still life drapery, furniture and interiors, flowers and foliage; mechanical and free-hand perspective; historic costume; decorative lettering; anatomy; original composition for bookplates, head and tailpieces, initial letters, titles, posters and general decorative illustration. In addition to the regular class work, lectures are given during the year by practical specialists upon the various processes of reproduction for the purpose of printing, and students are instructed to work with the particular process in view that is to be employed in reproducing their illustration. Practically all the academic schools have courses in illustration. Etching is taught in a few schools, notably at the National Academy of Design and at the Art Students' League, both in New York.

Classes in sculpture. The work consists of modeling from the living model, generally in the round, but occasionally in relief, and from both the full-length figure and the head only. In addition to the work from life, each student is required to present sketch models of sculptural themes, on which he receives individual criticism. Special facilities for the study of sculpture are offered in the following schools:

Baltimore, Ma.-Rinehart School of Sculpture; endowed.

Cleveland, Ohio.-Cleveland School of Art; separate well-equipped studio.
Edgartown, Mass.-Summer school.

New York, N. Y.-Sculpture studio; maintained by the Society of Beaux Arts Architects and the National Sculpture Society (special emphasis is placed on decorative sculpture as related to architecture).

Ogunquit, Me.-Summer School of Modeling.

Philadelphia, Pa.-Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts (special prizes and scholarships are offered).

Tuition fees in the academic schools average $100 for the season of eight months. Numerous free scholarships and prizes are open for competition. The most important are those offered by the American Academy in Rome each year to one painter, one sculptor, and one architect. This scholarship entitles the winner to $1,000 a year for three years and residence at the school in Rome. The Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts makes numerous awards from the income of the Cresson scholarship fund; 16 pupils were given $500 each in 1913 for European travel. Prizes for meritorious work range from $300 down to $10, and are given more or less liberally in every school.

Saturday morning classes for children are maintained by many of the schools.

The summer schools offer special facilities for landscape painting, and their normal departments are particularly active during the period of school vacation.

2. SCHOOLS OF DESIGN.

The drawn line rules the world, for with it are written in the language of form the laws of the fine and industrial arts. This universal language of form is the tongue of the genius of modern productiveness-not a phonetic, but a pictorial tongue--and hundreds of millions depend upon its utterances for their daily bread. To set up a modern locomotive requires 68 separate scale drawings, showing every bolt in place; these are multiplied three or four times for the shop. It is the same with the guns, great and small, with which we destroy our fellows scientifically and with all the complex enginery of war-fortifications, ordnance material, magazines, barracks, maps, and material of transportation-each of which is born on paper.

Thus wrote the late Col. Charles William Larned, professor of drawing at the West Point Military Academy.

On the other hand, Arthur W. Dow, director of the department of fine arts of Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, emphasizes the value of the "design method," in opposition to the traditional "drawing method" of teaching art. In an address before the Western Drawing and Manual Training Teachers' Association, May, 1912, he said:

The drawing method is analytic, dealing with the small, the details, the application of art; the design method is synthetic, dealing with wholes, unities, principles of art. The theory of the design method can be put into a single phrase: First, study

* * *

the art, then apply it. The problem is how to teach art so that all may share it; how to relate it to new demands and new thought in education. I believe that what I call the design method is equal to every condition, because it is built on an inherent human desire for choosing the fine-the desire to make something look well, whether the work be a machine or a painting. This aim brings order out of anarchy; it gives a definite reason for drawing from nature, for studying arrangement, proportion, tone, and color.

Courses in design include the general principles of composition, line harmony, spacing, proportion, rhythm, dark-and-light values; color in theory and practice; exercises with brush and ink, charcoal, colored crayons, and water color. The courses include the study, analysis, and rendering of historic ornament Byzantine, Romanesque, Saracenic, Gothic, Renaissance, and modern styles; plants, flowers, birds, and animals from nature for decorative application. Original designs are made for stencils, for oilcloth and linoleum, lace and curtains, carpets and rugs, embroidery, chintzes, silks, cretonnes, and prints, stained glass and mosaic, and leather work.

Many of the schools of design offer ample facilities for carrying out work from the design in what are generally known as the crafts. These crafts-or, more properly, handicrafts-are distinguished from the industries by requiring less mechanical equipment and more handwork. They include courses in jewelry, metal work, bookbinding, etc. The following special courses given in schools of design depend entirely upon design adequately rendered:

Costume design and costume illustration.-A study of design as applied to costume with technical training in pencil, pen and ink, charcoal, and blackboard drawing; sketching of gowns and hats. Courses are adapted for professional designers of costume, for teachers of costume design, and for teachers of household arts. Costume illustration aims only to render the design with such technical excellence that it will be available for reproduction.

Illustration for commercial purposes.-Lettering, poster work, planning of window cards, letter heads, and sign painting. A special class for color printing was established at Teachers College of Columbia University, New York, in 1914.

Interior decoration.-The subjects studied are: Historic ornament in its application to original schemes for interior decoration; harmony and contrast of color; modeling of ornament; water-color rendering; original designs and working drawings for furniture, woodwork, hangings, mosaic, stained glass; the making of stencils; drawing from the cast and life; library research under direction; the application of studies from nature to practical use and the constant consideration of the principles of decora tive fitness.

3. INDUSTRIAL ART SCHOOLS.

The close relation between art and industry, and the dependence. of industry upon art, were scarcely appreciated by the majority of educators in this country in the first half of the nineteenth century. As for the manufacturers, they were content, apparently, with using foreign workmen as designers or stealing patterns from imported samples, and perhaps working the designs over somewhat. The

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