THE COUNTY UNIT.

The greatest interest in any one problem of rural education during the past year was manifested in the county-unit organization for the administration of rural schools. It was indorsed by the State superintendents of public instruction at a meeting held at St. Paul, Minn., in July, 1914, and by the National Education Association in general session there at the same time. The legislatures of 10 or more. States have had this policy under consideration in their 1915 sessions. The essentials of the county-unit basis of organization for the administration of rural schools have been stated as follows:1

1. The county as the unit of taxation and administration of schools (except that, in administration, independent city districts employing a superintendent would not be included).

2. A county-school tax levied on all taxable property in the county, covered into the county treasury, and divided between the independent city districts and the rest of the county on a basis of the school population.

3. The county-school funds, including those raised by taxation and those received from the State, expended in such a way as would as nearly as possible insure equal educational opportunities in all parts of the county, regardless of the amount raised in any particular part. (Any subdistrict should be permitted to raise, by taxation or otherwise, additional funds to supplement the county funds, provided the subdistrict desired a better school plant, additional equipment, or a more efficient teaching force than could be provided from the county funds.)

4. A county board of education, in which is vested the administration of the public schools of the county (except those in independent city districts), composed of from five to nine persons, elected or appointed from the county at large; the board to be nonpartisan; the term of office to be at least five years; and the terms arranged so that not more than one-fifth would expire in any one year.

5. A county superintendent of schools, a professional educator, selected by the county board of education, from within or without the county or State, for a long term (at least two years), who shall serve as the secretary and executive officer of the county board and as such be the recognized head of the public schools in the county (except those in independent city districts).

6. District trustees in each subdistrict of the county, one or more persons, elected by the voters of the district or selected by the county board, to be custodians of the school property and to serve in an advisory capacity to the county board. The expenditures of local funds raised by the subdistrict would rest with the trustees, subject to the approval of the county board.

7. The powers and duties of the county board of education:

(a) To select a county superintendent, who would be its secretary and executive officer in the performance of all of its other functions, and to appoint assistants as required.

(b) To have general control and management of the schools of the county.

(c) To submit estimates to the regular county taxing authority of the amount of money needed to support the schools.

(d) To regulate the boundaries of the school subdistricts of the county, making from time to time such alterations as in its judgment would serve the best interests of the county system.

(e) To locate and erect school buildings.

(f) To supply the necessary equipment.

1 Bull. Bu. of Ed., 1914, No. 44.

(9) To fix the course of study and select textbooks (using the State course and Stateadopted textbooks in the States where action has been taken).

(h) To enforce the compulsory-education laws.

(i) To employ teachers, fix their salaries, and the salaries of other employees.

The county is the unit of supervision in at least 39 States of the Union and some form of county control of schools is now found in 18 States. The district unit of organization is in practice in 28 States. Investigation shows that county control has been adopted by most of the Southern States, while the district is the unit of organization in most of the States west of the Mississippi River. In the New England States, where cities and incorporated towns are included in the township, and where the township is the unit of local taxation and local government in nearly all civil affairs, "township control has proved very satisfactory."

Where conditions are not exceptional, as in New England, county control recommends itself because it is already the unit of supervision in most of the States; it gives the schools better support by giving the entire county the benefit of taxes paid by corporations, such as railroads; it gives the schools better teachers with better salaries, yet the schools are run more economically; it removes the school from unwise local influences and gives opportunity for the selection of teachers from a wider range and upon their merits; and it injects business into the management of the schools.

President N. D. Showalter, of the State Normal School, Cheney, Wash., makes the following argument against the county unit:

We are growing toward a "greater democracy" each year, and any plan proposed for the improvement of our educational system, which at the same time takes out of the hands of the people that which is most sacred to them-upon any pretext whatsoever should at once be labeled as un-American.

Nothing is worth while which has not behind it a great living personality, and no institution can prosper without human sympathy, and a united personal interest. Personal interest, however, is limited and can only come in contact in the strongest way with conditions near at hand. Impressions that we receive each day concerning the things which are nearest and dearest to us become of greatest personal interest. *

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The local community ought to be interested most in its own local affairs, and ought to know its own needs, its own possibilities, better than those who view it from a distance. It ought to be willing to make greater sacrifice for local needs than those who are looking on from afar. It certainly has a right to be considered, in a personal way, when anything is proposed as a safe principle for it to follow.

To propose that we (appointed agents) know better how to administer to the needs of the people than they know how to provide for their own well-being is nothing more than an old antiquated theory. It will work out in practice only when such agents are directly responsible to the people, and subject to their suggestion and direction. It is not what we can do for others that counts, but rather how much we can get them to do for themselves. The larger centers, therefore, can furnish suggestion and inspiration; but in order for any principle to become permanent, it must be wrought out and finally approved by the smaller units, and must through the course of time prove to be practical in connection with their needs and to their

progress.

Hon. Nathan C. Schaeffer, State superintendent of public instruction of Pennsylvania, gives his position on the county unit:

When our common-school system was organized we found we could not get schools on a county plan. The township was adopted, and there has been no agitation for a county unit. The States south of Mason and Dixon's line have a different political organization from the States north of that line. * * *

Yesterday Mr. C- —

was in my office and advocated the obliteration of township lines in school matters. As soon as he discovers that such a plan will increase his taxes he will be against the plan. Unfortunately township lines were not run with an idea to public school administration, but the same is true of county lines. We have the county unit in school supervision, and it is too large.

Pennsylvania has a statute providing for a district school officers' convention at public expense in each county annually and a State school officers' meeting once a year. Anyone who has attended one of these county conventions, like those held in Allegheny and Berks Counties in December, 1914, and witnessed the interest and enthusiasm of these officers, over 350 at each meeting, in all matters pertaining to the improvement of the rural schools, naturally questions the wisdom of changing from this system to one that would reduce the number of active school officers in a county to a small board of from 5 to 10 members, thereby losing the influence and interest of over 350 wide-awake men in the school affairs of a single county. If this interest and influence be multiplied by the number of counties in Pennsylvania for its State-wide effect, it is not hard to see why Supt. Schaeffer dislikes to lose the help of 20,000 men in the cause of popular education.

As chairman ex officio of the committee on rural schools, Dr. Schaeffer made the following report to the Pennsylvania State Educational Association, December 29, 1914, on The County v. The Township as the unit of taxation and school administration:

Pennsylvania tried a county plan in 1834 and 1835 and changed to the township plan in 1836. From more than 100 townships independent districts were carved so as to permit more rapid progress in school matters. As conditions have greatly changed since 1836, it is deemed wise to discuss The County v. The Township as the unit of taxation and school administration. Moreover, in the Southern States, where the county is the prevailing unit, the educational leaders are trying to secure local taxation, whilst in Pennsylvania some are now advocating county taxes for school maintenance in order to get away from local taxation.

I. The county unit of rural school administration presupposes a county board of education with powers corresponding to those ordinarily possessed by township and city boards and a county superintendent of schools responsible to the county board with powers and duties corresponding to those of city superintendents. The most efficient organization presupposes a small board selected from the county at large and the selection of the county superintendent of this board without reference to the place of residence. Following are the chief considerations favoring the county unit: 1. The civil division corresponding to our county is the unit of rural school administration in the leading educational countries of Europe, viz, the Regierungs-Bezirk in Germany, the Department in France, and the administrative county in England. In England the county unit was substituted for the parish or township unit in 1902.

2. The county has long proved to be a satisfactory unit in certain of our Southern States.

3. The burdens and opportunities of education can be equalized throughout the entire county. The tax rate can be made uniform, and all communities, rich and poor, can be provided with the same minimum educational advantages.

4. Schools may be provided and attendance districts established on the basis of topography, distribution of population, etc., regardless of township or other arbitrary lines. In this way the effective consolidation of schools may be much facilitated.

5. A reasonable degree of uniformity in school year, curriculum, methodology, textbooks, etc., may be secured throughout the county, thus obviating most of the waste and misadjustment resulting from migration within the county when the township is the unit.

6. The county unit requires the time and services of far fewer lay school officials. 7. A county board of education with adequate powers is likely to be made up of men of much better caliber than the average of township boards. The greater importance and prestige of membership on the county board and the selection from the entire county favor this result. It is a matter of experience that members of purely local school boards are likely to be relatively ignorant, prejudiced, and parsimonious.

8. The county unit is more favorable to efficiency of administration and supervision of rural schools. The county can afford the services of a professional leader or superintendent of superior caliber, whereas the townships can not. Under the county unit the direction of all local administration and supervision can be placed in the hands of such a professional county leader.

9. The county unit is more favorable to efficiency of teaching. Owing to the common limitations of purely local authorities, the selection, control, and supervision of teachers by county authorities is very likely to result in better conditions of tenure, higher qualifications, and in general better teaching.

10. For like reasons the county unit is more favorable to securing proper material, sanitary and other correct physical conditions of school work.

11. In general the advantages usually carried by the present general movement toward greater centralization of educational administration result from the adoption of the county unit in place of the township unit.

II. The township unit of rural school administration is the one in vogue in the State of Pennsylvania. Following are the chief considerations favoring the township unit:

1. The township has long proved to be a satisfactory unit in our New England States and a few others.

2. The township unit harmonizes better with the instinct and desire of the American people for local self-government.

3. The township unit is conducive to greater local interest and initiative in matters educational. In securing these advantages the multiplicity of local lay school officials is very desirable.

4. The township unit is more just from the standpoint of taxation and support. Complete equalization of the burden of education is unfair. Every community should bear a considerable part of its own educational burdens without assistance. 5. The township unit is more favorable to the adaptation of education to local needs. Variation to suit local conditions is educationally desirable, as well as reasonable uniformity.

6. In general the advantages usually carried by local autonomy in educational administration are secured through the use of the township unit rather than the county unit.

7. As a rule the township unit corresponds more closely to established practice in America and involves less change and readjustment than the other. This argument of course applies with full force to Pennsylvania.

From the exceptions that can be cited against proper conditions under any of the three systems-district, township, or countyit is evident that the greatest need in this country for real progress in rural education is a public sentiment that will vote the amount of funds necessary for a first-class school within reasonable distance of every child of school age. When the weak district has done all that reason should ask it to do, then the State should come to its

assistance by direct State aid with enough money for nine months of school each year and a teacher professionally trained.

Among the greatest obstacles in the path of rural-school progress are partisan politics, factional favoritism, and selfish nepotism, and it will take something more than any or all of these three units of administration to free our public school system from these evils. It often happens that the larger the unit of administration the greater the political influence in the management of schools, for even State boards of education and boards of control of State educational institutions have been guilty of as evil political methods, favoritism, and nepotism as the school officers of the smallest unit of administration found in the public school system of the United States. The only remedy for such evils is the creation of a public sentiment that will demand that all public school officers, whether elected or appointed, whether in charge of a district school, the schools of township, county, or State, will make merit the determining force in the selection of teachers and public economy their motto in the administration of public school funds and yet not be penny-wise and pound-foolish; for every dollar wisely expended for public education saves two dollars in expenses for jails and prisons. In the management of the public schools, whether under the district, township, or county unit, as well as in the control of State educational institutions, all distinctions, social, political, and religious, should be banished, all differences hushed. This management should recognize "neither party nor church, creed, condition, nor station, but it should be so administered that its bounties and benefits will fall in equal measure upon all."

RURAL-SCHOOL LEGISLATION.

The rural-school legislation that attracted widest attention during the school year of 1913-14 was enacted by a special session of the General Assembly of Ohio, when a complete revision of the State school code was made. The history of American education does not record instances of many States that have held special sessions of the legislature solely for the revision of the school laws. The more important laws relating to the rural schools enacted by this special session of the Ohio General Assembly were as follows:

1. New rural-school supervision law. Under this act the school districts of the State are to be styled, respectively, city-school districts, village-school districts, rural-school districts, and county-school districts.

2. Law on the training of teachers for village and rural schools. Boards of education which maintain first-grade high schools in village or rural districts may establish normal departments in such schools for the training of teachers for village and rural schools. Not less than one nor more than three such schools shall be established in any county. The superintendent of public instruction is to designate schools to establish such departments.

3. Law basing the distribution of the State school fund on the number of teachers and average daily attendance of pupils.