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plan, so that in favorable weather all the rooms may be conducted as open-air classes. These classes are part of the regular school system and are for children without regard to their physical condition.

JANITORS.

As far

It is undoubtedly true that not enough attention is given by school boards in the smaller cities to the employment and supervision of janitors. The health of school children, both physical and moral, depends in no small degree upon the janitor. Of 1,350 cities reporting, only 56 examine janitors on methods of sanitation. as can be learned, these examinations are in many instances superficial. In 476 of these cities janitors are permitted to employ their own help out of a salary made large enough to permit them to do this. In many instances this plan has been unsuccessful, since janitors are likely to employ help cheaply, without regard to efficiency. From reports received at this bureau it is evident that more attention is being given to the employment and supervision of janitors in the smaller cities. In several places janitors' meetings under the direction of the superintendent have proved helpful. The tendency is to place janitors under the direct supervision of the superintendent or principal of the building. In 641 of the 1,350 cities reporting, janitors are under the direct supervision of the superintendent or one of his assistants, while in the others they are under the direct supervision of the board.

PLAYGROUNDS.

Play has come to be recognized as one of the best means of preserving a child's health, yet the schools have been rather slow to provide sufficient play space for children. In 496 cities the average size of ground surrounding the school buildings is less than one-half acre; in 355 from one-half acre to 1 acre; in 318, from 1 to 2 acres, and in only 181 are there more than 2 acres. Practically every city reporting small grounds declares that in the erection of new buildings more playground is to be provided. In addition to the school playground, a few cities have established public playgrounds under the direction of a play supervisor. In most instances, however, a supervisor is employed for only a part of the year, usually for a few weeks during vacation. The Yearbook of the Playground and Recreation Society of America reports 22 cities of 25,000 population and less with recreation work carried on through the year with at least one paid worker. During 1913 seventy cities gave the children playgrounds for the first time. Of this number 53 were in cities of 25,000 population and less.

No doubt one factor that has not been sufficiently considered in the smaller cities in the care of the health of the children is that of frequent rest and relaxation periods during school hours. Of 1,269 cities reporting, 159 have one intermission, not including the noon hour; 1,072 have two, and 40 have three; in 125 cities the noon hour is from one-fourth to one-half hour in length; in 222 from one-half to one hour; in 854 from one to one and a half hours, and in 76 from one and a half to two hours.

CLASSIFICATION AND PROMOTION.

How pupils shall be classified so that they may advance through the grades without loss of time is a question that is continually presenting itself to thoughtful superintendents. A few of the current experiments in this field in smaller city schools are given below:

Carthage, N. Y.-All those children who can not read are started on their educational journey in much the same way. Gradually they are regrouped into three divisions: The first, composed of the most mature and most capable, completes a certain amount of work in one year; the next group is given one and one-half years in which to accomplish the same amount, and the third two years. Before the close of the first year each of the three groups is likely to be divided again into the higher and lower. Therefore each pupil who enters in the fall with no knowledge of the books has before him the possibility of being in any one of six groups before the close of the first year. There is a special teacher in the lower grades who devotes her entire time to misfitsthose pupils who for some reason or other can not do all of their work to the best advantage in any of the regular groups. This teacher coaches backward pupils and helps the brilliant ones to jump to the next higher division.

A pupil who fails in one or two subjects belonging to his group, but keeps up in the other subjects is allowed to recite with a lower group in the subjects in which he is deficient, while continuing regular work in all other subjects. Similarly, brilliant pupils or pupils capable of doing a higher grade of work in some one subject or two are allowed the chance.

East Chicago, Ind.—A child is promoted at any time the teacher and supervisors feel that he would be benefited. The plan is to pass pupils if they are doing their best, even if the grades are low. Teachers and principals are requested to make a report on all special pupils, giving their school history.

Williamsburg, Va.-The superintendent says: We use the shifting group plan of grading pupils and a form of reports to parents that keep parents thoroughly informed as to the pupil's standing during the year. As each weakness of a pupil is discovered by the teacher, it becomes a matter of special consideration and study by teacher, parents, principal, and the pupil. Tentative shifts can be made at any time. The aim is to relieve the teacher of all red tape and to reduce routine to the minimum but to insist upon a constant and sympathetic study of the child-every child—but particularly every child who is in danger of falling behind his class. No percentages or grades are accepted from a teacher as excuses for promotion or demotion. If a pupil is weak, efforts are made to ascertain the exact nature of his weakness early in the term and remedy it.

One of the signs of progress is that few schools now rely entirely upon examinations as a test for promotion. In some schools exam

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inations are made to count one-half, while in others they count only one-fourth. It is now recognized that examinations are not true tests of the pupil's ability to do the next grade's work, and that a pupil should not be promoted on what he knows, but on what he can do. Of 756 superintendents in the smaller cities reporting, 669 say that they are now depending on examinations much less than formerly.

CHAPTER V.

RURAL EDUCATION.

By J. L. McBRIEN,

School Extension Agent, United States Bureau of Education.

CONTENTS.-Introduction-Conference for education in the South-Conference of State rural-school supervisors-Teacher training for rural schools-Rural school extension-The county unit-Rural-school legislation-Free textbooks-Agricultural education and home economics-Ideals in rural education.

INTRODUCTION.

Progress in rural education for the school year 1913-14 is seen not alone in the actual achievements of the year, but in the plans for the future, and in the advanced position taken by leading educators relative to rural education and rural-life problems.

This progress found expression in various ways. It was a It was a "cleanup day" campaign for beautifying school buildings and grounds and for putting things in shipshape order for the opening of school in several States that now make this an annual event. In some States it was a campaign for a library in every rural school. In other States. educational rallies, school fairs, and farmers' chautauquas were potent factors in arousing a desire among the people for better schools. There were doubtless more rural-school and rural-life conferences held under the auspices of State normal schools, colleges, and universities and by various other organizations during the past year than in any single year within the last five years. In all of these meetings the improvement of the rural schools and the betterment of rural life were the paramount issues for study and discussion. The daily and weekly newspapers and the weekly and monthly magazines gave more space to rural problems during the past year than for many years previous.

The attendance of rural teachers at summer sessions of colleges, universities, and normal schools during the past summer was so marked as to make for progress in rural education. At the Illinois. State Normal University over 500 rural teachers were in attendance; at the Iowa State Teachers' College, 1,200; and in Ohio over 7,000 rural teachers attended summer schools in 1914. Teacher training for rural schools never received so much attention in a single year.

Interest in consolidation of rural schools has greatly increased.1 The people are slowly but surely becoming convinced that the oneroom, one-teacher rural school has, in the main, outlived its usefulness and that, wherever feasible and possible, the consolidated rural school must take its place.

A larger unit of organization for rural schools has been one of the chief topics of discussion during the year. The opinion is spreading among the people that the old independent school district as the unit of taxation and administration must give way to the township or county unit.

Marked progress was made in the increased appropriations by various States as well as the Federal Government for the cause of rural education and the betterment of rural-life conditions. For example, in 1913 the maximum limit of school taxation was raised by legislative act for the rural schools of Nebraska from 25 mills to 35 mills; Mississippi increased the appropriation for her county agricultural high schools $100,000; and the Smith-Lever bill, passed by the Sixty-third Congress and approved by the President May 8, 1914, will ultimately carry over $4,500,000 annually for agricultural extension and rural welfare.

Progress in rural education is still laboriously slow, however. The average education of the American citizen in 1800, according to Dr. E. A. Ross, of the University of Wisconsin, was only 82 days. It is now 1,057 days, still less than six years. Not until the average education of the rural American has reached 12 years-education that fits for life and prepares for the duties of citizenship-can we boast of our progress in rural education.

CONFERENCE FOR EDUCATION IN THE SOUTH.

The conference for education in the South during the 17 years of its history has done some notable things for the progress of rural education in the Southern States, but the lessons it demonstrated at Louisville, Ky., in April, 1914, are of inestimable value to the entire country. The aim of this conference was to show "How to organize and build up country life." There were demonstrations of cooperative growing and marketing associations; women's clubs for household equipment and home making; boys' and girls' clubs; sanitary home, country school, country church; excursions to blue-grass farms. There were conferences of farmers, country women, country preachers, country doctors, school workers, editors, and business men.

The fundamental ideas to be gained from this conference are summed up by Dr. A. P. Bourland, its secretary:

1 See Bulletin of the Bureau of Education, 1914, No. 30.

2 Ibid., No. 44.

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