Plated, with compass, best, new cog-wheel movement, dis-
pensing with cord, complete,

$ 25.00

.

20.00

No. 8 A.
No. 8. Next best finish, with day circle and compass, brass, (one cut),
The TELLURIAN is an instrument designed to illustrate all the
phenomena resulting from the relations of Sun, Earth and Moon to
each other, and show the causes of the following:

1. Succession of Day and Night and their difference in length.

2. Changes of the Seasons: Vernal Equinox, Summer Solstice, Autumnal Equinox and Winter Solstice.

3. Changes of the Moon: New Moon, First Quarter, Full Moon, Third Quarter, with the intermediate phases.

4. Solar and Lunar Eclipses-Partial and Total.

5. Philosophy of the Tides; their daily recurrence; Spring and Neap Tides, etc.

6. Precession or falling back of the Equinoxes.

7. Differences of Solar and Siderlal Time.

8. Rising of the Sun north of east in Summer.

Many other things will suggest themselves to the practical teacher.
The recent improvements in gearing, compass attachment, finish, etc.,
render this one of the most useful and beautiful pieces of apparatus
that any school room or college can possess.

This Chart is "Object Teaching," and attracts the immediate attention of the Children.

General Description.

This large Chart, one-half of which resembles a landscape paint-
ing, virtually combines Nine Charts in one. The size is 65x54 in.
Every division of land and water, and all the ordinary geo-
graphical objects are presented at a glance, saving the time and
patience of the teacher. The common physical divisions of land and
water are photographed on the mind of the child instantly, and a thou-
sand times more correctly and effectively than by oral or verbal
descriptions alone.

A Tellurian and Geographic chart from Andrew's & Co.'s Illustrated
Catalogue (1881) pp. 66-67.

cost from $5 to $10 apiece; under the new system, the price was reduced to a 25¢ to $1 range.30

Also, new methods were introduced to care for school maps. In the 1890's, roll-up maps came into vogue. Before, they were placed on a stand and flipped or simply nailed to the wall.

Charts

There was almost no end to the variety of instructional charts advertised during this period. Most were poorly illustrated from cuts but some were quite well-colored and well-organized with a number identification system. Here is a select list of some noted in but one catalogue. All the charts covered eight pages of advertisement: 31

1. Spencerian Charts of Writing (47 charts mounted on rollers)

2. Johnson's Solar System Chart

3. Johnson's Indestructible Alphabet Chart

4. Monroe's Primary Reading Charts (set of 50)

5. Johnson's Philosophical Charts (set of 10)

6. Andrew's Anatomical and Physiological Charts (handbook 10¢ extra)

7. Wilson and Calkins' School and Family Charts

What were the charts like? They were simply handy references and visual aids for the instructor-comparable to the Atomic Charts in modern day chemistry classrooms. A good example of these charts was "Wilson and Calkins' School and Family Chart." Made up of a set of 22 charts, it embraced such subjects as "Phonic Spelling" (No. 8) to "Economical Uses of Plants" (No. 20). Chart No. 1 was called "First Reading-Lessons." It contained 60 familiar words such as cat, rat, etc., in large type and accompanied by the appropriate colored illustration (copper cut). Thus the child learned to read the word by the picture, even before he knew the letters of the alphabet (if the advertisement is to be believed). The catalogue claimed this to be a "NATURE' method, as opposed to the artificial system formerly in vogue."

Arithmetical Apparatuses

Instructional helps for arithmetic and geometry abounded in this period. Object teaching blocks and forms, though certainly nothing new, were used extensively. An 1879 catalogue 32 lists and illustrates

30 William Edward Pulsifer, A Brief Account of the Educational Publishing Business in the United States, Atlantic City, N.J., 1921, p. 10.

Baker, Pratt & Co., Illustrated Catalogue of School Merchandise, New York, 1879, pp. 74-82.

32 Baker, Pratt & Co., Catalogue, 1879, pp. 112–118.

98 Numbers. 96 x 33 Inches

Printed on heavy Manilla Paper in clear type. Fully illustrated with well executed original designs.

Adapted to the Object, Letter, Word or Phonic Method, or a combination

Back View of Stand Furnished with Parker's Arithmetical Charts.

These Charts are the best Arithmetical Charts published, and are indispens
able in primary class-work.

They present the latest and best methods of teaching beginners in arithmetic,
and wherever used will render unnecessary the ordinary text-books in primary
arithmetic, thus saving both time and expense.

They have recently been revised, and now comprise 30 numbers, 23 x 30 inches
in size.

They are beautifully printed on Manilla Parchment Paper (stronger and more
durable than pasteboard), and are compactly bound.

The figures and type were made expressly for these Charts, and are so dis-
tinct that they can readily be seen from any part of the class room. The pictures
and diagrams were drawn with special adaptation to the lessons.

Among the new features are pictorial representations of linear, surface and
cubical measurement, and of the various articles used in determining weight,
bulk, volume, etc.

Full and explicit directions are given on the margin of each Chart, so that
even the inexperienced teacher may easily understand its use
Price per Set, with Stand, 80.00.

Typical Teaching Charts (Reading and Arithmetical) from Andrews School Furnishing Co. Illustrated Catalogue (New York) 1895, pp. 82-83.

what it called "Set No. 1" of necessary object forms. This set consisted of 30 wooden blocks depiciting every geometric form from a "hexagonal frame" to a "flight of four steps."

From time to time, ingenious but short-lived mathematical instructional aids popped up. For example, the so-called "Gonigraph" was a small instrument composed of a number of flat rods connected by a pivot (in other words, a glorified carpenter's rule) which could show all possible geometrical figures consisting of straight lines and angles (triangles, squares, octagons, etc.).33

Numeral frames were advertised regularly. This simple abacustype apparatus for teaching children to count could be purchased quite cheaply. One, made of 100 colored balls, cost only $1.25 in 1872.34

At times, these mathematical apparatuses attained a relative degree of sophistication. As early as 1867, a device was advertised which enabled the teacher to flash whole arithmetic problems to the class with little effort. The apparatus consisted of a number of slots holding number sequences. By manipulating knobs, the teacher could change number combinations and set up problems in "addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, decimals, federal money and reduction.” 35 However, simplicity of operation could not have been claimed justifiably this scholar was unable to figure out exactly how the apparatus worked after two pages of explanation!

Simple calculating machines were being devised and employed in universities and colleges for instructional purposes as early as 1873.

Reading Apparatuses

A number of devices were also invented to aid the child in learning to read. One extremely simple device was the Spelling Stick. It consisted of a grooved piece of wood with a handle on it (like a window washer's squeezer) on which letters were stood upright. Single words or even simple sentences could be formed ("Let Me Try"). The class or individual then read the sentence back to the teacher. The spelling stick cost only 25¢ and a package of letters cost 50¢.36

A more complicated apparatus was "Baade's Permutation Reading Case" with a patent date of 1871. Similar to the arithmetical apparatus for flashing class problems mentioned earlier, Baade's device

American Journal of Education, Vol. XVI (1866), p. 577.

34 National School Furniture Co., Illustrated Catalogue (New York?), 1872. American School Apparatus Co., Improved School Furniture, New York, 1867. 36 Baker, Pratt & Co., Catalogue, 1879, p. 118.

ALPHABET BLOCKS.

No. 000, Flats, Natural Wood, 12 pieces, in paper box,

Each, $0.25
.50

PER SET.

$0.10

Jeffers' Panoramic Apparatus.

For Teaching Reading by Object-Lesson Exercises, with a Manual of
Directions.

JEFFERS PATENT

horse

This is an entirely new apparatus for presenting the first lessons of
reading in accordance with an important principle of Elementary Edu.
cation, namely during the first steps let the Child's attention be occupied
with a single object only at a time. By means of this apparatus a pic-
ture, a word, or a single letter may be seen at once, or an entire sentence
can be shown at the same time. It can be quickly changed and ad-
justed to a letter, word, or sentence by the teacher, or even by the
youngest pupil in school. The type is so large and plain that the words
can be easily read across a room twenty-five feet in width. The words
and objects are illustrated by large colored pictures, which may be seen
by fifty pupils at the same time. By means of this apparatus, and a good
blackboard, a class of fifty children may be taught to read several hun-
dred words that are in common use, at sight; also sentences contain.
ing words of two and three syllables, within two months. Its use is
highly interesting to the pupils, by combining amusement with instruc-
$15.00
tion. Price,

Jeffer's Panoramic Apparatus and The Spelling Stick from Baker, Pratt & Company, Catalogue, New York (1879) pp. 118-119.