tember 8, 1664), and was appointed a member of the Governor's Council. He drew up, under He drew up, under the supervision of Governor Nicolls, a code from the English, the Roman-Dutch, and the local laws of New England, which was promulgated at Hempstead in October, 1664, and was later known as the 'Duke's Laws.' In the Court of In the Court of Assizes provided in this code, he was the presiding justice, and in 1665 was appointed judge of the Admiralty Court. He also served as captain of the militia and led some expeditions against the Indians. Though deposed as secretary when the Dutch recaptured the province in 1673, he was reappointed by Andros in 1674, and was elected mayor of the city as well. In 1680 he resigned all his offices and went to England. Upon his return he was appointed one of the two judges of the Court of Oyer and Terminer in 1683. During that year and the next he was Speaker of the First Assemblies of the Province. He bought and entered much land in Queens County, and died on his estate, Plandome.

NICOLLS, RICHARD (1624-72). A British soldier and colonial Governor. During the Civil War he commanded a troop of horse on the Royalist side. He followed the Stuarts into exile and served with the Duke of York under Marshal Turenne. After the Restoration, he was groom of the bedchamber for the Duke of York. In 1664 Charles II. appointed a commission, consisting of Colonel Richard Nicolls, Sir Robert Carr, Sir George Cartwright, and Samuel Maverick, to investigate complaints against the New England colonies, and reduce the Dutch in New Netherland, which had been granted to the Duke of York. Colonel Nicolls's presence was to be necessary for a quorum, and he was commissioned as Deputy Governor of the territory to be captured. After touching at Boston, he appeared before New Amsterdam, August 25, 1664, and on September 8th Governor Stuyvesant was forced to surrender. Governor Nicolls assumed authority over New York and New Jersey. He made no radical changes, was firm, yet conciliatory, and soon won the respect and confidence of the people and the good-will of the Indians. In March, 1665, he published the 'Duke's Laws,' which had been drawn up under his supervision (see NIcOLLS, MATHIAS), and which served for a time as a constitution. On June 12, 1665, he established the English form of municipal government for the city of New York. The French and Indian troubles of 1666 were settled with credit, but he complained that he had spent much money from his private purse to maintain the establishment. He asked several times to be relieved, and in 1667 his petition was granted, but he remained until Governor Lovelace arrived, in August, 1668. His time had been so fully occupied with affairs in New York that he largely left the management of New England to the other commissioners. When war broke out between the English and the Dutch, he served on shipboard and was killed at Solebay.

NICOL PRISM. A prism formed from a crystal of calcite devised by Nicol in 1828 to polarize light. The Nicol prism, which has undergone various modifications, is a most convenient source for obtaining polarized light, and is largely employed in many forms of polariscope. The accompanying diagrams will show its construction. In Fig. 1 A G B F DEC is a rhomb of calcite,

sam is perpendicular to the end of the face of the prism. Under these conditions the ray of light falling upon the prism at H is broken by double refraction into two rays-the extraordinary, which travels to J and passes out of the prism and is available for experimentation, and the ordinary, which strikes the balsam at an angle of incidence so great that it is totally reflected at I and lost on the side of the prism. The plane of the polarization of the extraordinary ray is perpendicular to the plane of the diagram, while that of the ordinary ray is parallel to it. See POLARISCOPE; LIGHT.

NICOMACHUS, ni-kõm'å-kus (Lat., from Gk.

Nкóμaxos, Nikomachos). A celebrated painter of the fourth century B.C., a son and scholar of Arisin technique, and rapid but effective execution. tides. The references to him praise his mastery his style. His works are known only from a The notices, however, throw but little light upon particular list in Pliny (Hist. Nat., xxxv., 108, Proserpine," in the temple of Minerva, on the cf. 145). Among them were: "The Rape of Four-Horse Capitol; "Victory Conducting a Chariot on High," also in the Capitol; "Apollo and Diana," "Cybele on a Lion," "Bacchantes Approached by Satyrs," and "Scylla."

NICOMACHUS (c. 100 A.D.). A Neo-Pythagorean philosopher and mathematician, born at Gerasa, probably in Judæa. He wrote an arithmetic in two books, of which the best edition is that of Hoche (Leipzig, 1866). In this he fully treated the theory of figurate numbers, and it is interesting as containing the first known multiplication table. Commentaries on this work were written by Iamblichus (q.v.), Philoponus, Soterichus, and others, and it was translated into Latin by Boëthius and Apuleius. He also wrote

a

Harmonices Manuale (published in 1652; French trans. 1880), of which the first book is still extant; the so-called second book, consisting of two fragments which probably did not belong to the original, was published in Jans's Musici Græci (Leipzig, 1895).

NIC'OME/DIA (Lat., from Gk. Nikoμńdeia, Nikomedeia). The capital of ancient Bithynia, situated at the northeastern angle of the Gulf of Astacus, in the Propontis, now called the Bay of Ismid; founded in B.C. 264 by Nicomedes I. after

the destruction of Astacus (on the opposite side of the bay) by Lysimachus. Nicomedes made it the capital of the kingdom, and it soon became one of the most magnificent and flourishing cities in the East. Some of the later Roman Emperors, as Diocletian and Constantine the Great, selected it for their temporary residence. It suffered greatly both from earthquakes and the attacks of the Goths. Constantine died at a royal villa in the immediate vicinity. Hannibal committed suicide in a castle close by. It was the birthplace of the historian Arrian. The small town of Ismid or Isnikmid now occupies its site, and contains many relics of ancient Nicomedia.

NICOP'OLIS (Lat., from Gk. Nikóroλis, Nikopolis). A town in Epirus, where Paul, in writing to Titus, stated that he designed to pass the winter (Titus iii. 12). It was founded in the year B.C. 31 by the Emperor Augustus, who named it the 'City of Victory,' in commemoration of the victory won by him at Actium. He decided to make a great city of Nicopolis, gathered a large population into it, and instituted games which drew throngs there every fourth year. The question of Paul's visit to Nicopolis is bound up with the authenticity of the pastoral Epistles (i.e. the two letters to Timothy and the one to Titus, qq.v.). Those who hold these to be authentic believe that Paul reached Nicopolis from Rome, preached there, and was there arrested for the second time and sent to Rome, where he was tried a second time and condemned. The original site of Nicopolis is now deserted. Remains of it are still to be found. Another city, Prevesa (Map: Balkan Peninsula, C 5), situated about five miles distant from the original location of Nicopolis, is the historical successor of the older city.

NICOPOLIS. A town of Bulgaria. See NIKO

POLI.

NICOSIA, někō-sēȧ (more common than the forms LEFKOSIA and LEVKOSIA, of which it is a corruption). The capital and largest city of the island of Cyprus (Map: Turkey in Asia, E 5). It is the seat of the British High Commissioner and of an archbishop of the Greek Church. It is situated in a barren plain, a little northeast of the centre of the island, on the river Pedias, which is dry most of the year. The water supply of the city comes by aqueduct from the hills not far away. From a distance the high walls built by the Venetians and the beautiful Gothic cathedral, now a mosque, render Nicosia attractive; but the streets and labyrinthine, and most of the buildings insignificant. The manufactures are silks, leather, and woolen stuffs. Population, in 1891, 12,515; in 1901, 14,752. The city first appears in history in the time of Constantine, who fortified it with walls that lasted until the Venetians replaced them. It became the capital under the Lusignan kings, to the first of whom, Guy de Lusignan, the island was given in 1193 by Richard Cœur de Lion. Consult Levkosia, the Capital of Cyprus (London, 1881).

are narrow

NICOSIA, nē’kō-zē'à. A city in the Province of Catania, Sicily, situated in a mountainous region, on the Salso, 25 miles northeast of Cal

tanissetta (Map: Italy, J 10). The town is mediæval in appearance and customs. It is the see of a bishop, and has a Gothic cathedral, several ancient churches, and quaint houses. It

carries on some trade in corn, wine, oil, and cattle. Near it are beds of alum, a rich mine of rock salt, and springs of petroleum. Population (commune), in 1901, 16,004.

NICOT, në’ko', JEAN SIEUR DE VILLEMAIN (1530-1600). A French diplomat, born at Nîmes. He was appointed by Francis II. Ambassador Lisbon he obtained from a Flemish trader some to Portugal in 1560. During his residence at seeds of the tobacco plant, which he took back with him to France, where the plant was named Nicotiana in his honor. He published a Historia Francorum (1566), and a Trésor de la langue française (1606), one of the earliest French dictionaries.

com

NICOTERA, ně-kō'tå-rå, GIOVANNI (182894). An Italian statesman, born at San Biase Revolution of 1848-49, fought in Calabria and (Calabria). He took an active part in the Rome, and was afterwards taken prisoner at influence of England this sentence was Sanza and condemned to death. Through the muted to imprisonment for life. In 1860 he was set at liberty again, and joined Garibaldi. He of the succeeding years, and was at all times a was concerned in all of the political movements supporter of Victor Emmanuel. After the estab ister of the Interior under Depretis (1876-77), lishment of the Kingdom of Italy, he was Minand again during the Premiership of Rudini (1891-92).

NICOTIANA. See TOBACco.

-14

NICOTINE (Fr. nicotine, Sp. nicotiana, from Fr. nicotiane, tobacco, named in honor of Jean Nicot), C10H1N2. One of the vegetable alkaloids that contain no oxygen; it constitutes the active principle of the tobacco plant, in the leaves, roots, and seeds of which it occurs in combination with malic and citric acids. The smoke of burning tobacco-leaves contains but a mere trace, if any, of nicotine; which does not prove, however, that tobacco smoke is harmless, for its other ingredients are probably more or less injurious to health. Nicotine is a colorless, intensely poisonous liquid, of specific gravity 1.027 at 66° F.; it boils at 466° F. (241° C.), evolves a very irritating odor of tobacco, especially on the application of heat, is very inflammable, and burns with a smoky flame. It is moderately soluble in water, but dissolves readily in alcohol and ether. If exposed to the air, it absorbs oxygen and becomes brown and ultimately solid. The quantity of nicotine contained in tobacco varies from 2 to 8 per cent.; the coarser kinds containing the larger quantity, while the best Havana cigars seldom contain more than 2 per cent., and often less. Turkish tobacco scarcely contains any

nicotine at all.

The principal physiological effects of even minute doses of nicotine are as follows: intense gastro-intestinal irritation, among the symptoms of which are nausea and vomiting, accompanied by great muscular weakness, a rapid, “feeble pulse, coldness of extremities, and extreme gention are rapidly paralyzed, and death may ensue eral collapse; the motor nerves and the respirawithin three minutes of taking a dose of the poison. See also ALKALOIDS.

NICOYA, né-kō'yå, GULF OF. An inlet of the Pacific Ocean, on the west coast of Costa Rica, formed by a peninsula ending in Cape Blanco

(Map: Central America, E 6). It is about 60 miles long and 20 to 30 miles wide, and is lined on both sides with high and picturesque mountains. On its eastern shore lies Punta Arenas, the only port of entry on the Pacific coast of Costa Rica.

NICTHEROY, nēk'tå-roi'. A town of Brazil,

in the State of Rio de Janeiro. It is situated on the east side of the entrance to the bay, opposite the city of Rio de Janeiro (Map: Brazil, H 13). The town is not attractive, but it is surrounded by delightful suburbs, where the residences of the wealthy classes are situated. Prior to 1894 Nictheroy was the capital of Rio de Janeiro. The population was estimated in 1898 at 26,000.

NIC'UM, JOHN (1851-). An American clergyman and author, born at Winnenden, Württemberg. He studied at Muhlenberg College, Allentown, Pa., and at the Philadelphia Theological Seminary. In 1876 he became pas tor at Frockville, Pa., but two years later removed to Philadelphia, where he remained two years, and then went to Syracuse, N. Y. In 1887 he took charge of the Saint John's Evangelical Lutheran Church in Rochester. His books include History of the New York Ministerium (1884), and Confessional History of the Lutheran Church in the United States (1891).

NIDIFICATION (from Lat. nidificare, to make a nest, from nidus, nest + facere, to make). Strictly, the act and process of nest-building. In the present article, however, the word will be broadly interpreted, so as to include the entire series of acts, instincts, and adaptations connected with the provision of a temporary breeding-home, nidus, or 'nest' for their eggs, embryos, or young, and the care of offspring, by the parents of animals generally.

A nest differs from an animal's ordinary residence in that it is not made primarily for the animal's own use, but for that of expected young. In some instances it is mainly a convenient lying-in place for the mother; in others, merely a means for the safety and comfort of eggs or helpless embryos; but often it combines these purposes and adds to them that of a nursery. The last phase is illustrated by certain social insects, some birds, a few mammals, and in human society. In the lowest ranks of invertebrate life, and to some extent among animals of comparatively high organization, the eggs, or 'spawn,' are simply voided into the water or earth and left to survive or perish, unregarded by the parent. Some animals, however, produce comparatively few eggs, protected against many dangers by being placed within one or more envelopes or 'capsules.' (See EGG.) Another widespread method is that of retaining the embryo in the maternal body until it is able to shift for itself. This is seen in many invertebrates and in some fishes. These animals are therefore known as ovoviviparous.

MATERNAL CARE OF EGGS. An advance upon this is made by a large class of creatures which carry their eggs about with them until they hatch, and in some cases even continue to care for the young, although they make no nest. Examples of this are to be found in all classes of animals, from mollusks and crustaceans up to a few of the lowest birds; and some of the brooding habits and physical adaptations thus

manifested are surprising. Thus the female argonaut (q.v.) has developed an elaborate boatlike shell in which her eggs and embryos rest secure; the violet-snail (Janthina, q.v.) drags hers beneath a raft; and other instances are citable. Spiders' eggs are covered with silk, forming a bag or ball of various shapes and colors. (See SPIDER.) Crustaceans almost universally keep their eggs with them. with them. Some insects inclose their eggs in packets and take care of them, much as do the crabs, but most insects simply deposit their eggs so that the resulting larvæ shall be within reach of suitable food, and do not know what becomes of them. It is not until the highest grades of Hymenoptera are reached-the wasps, bees, and ants-that anything which may be called a 'nest' is made in preparation for the eggs or young, or any parental care is exerted. (See ANT; BEE; WASP; INSECT, paragraph Social Insects.) hardly to be found among vertebrates until man The equal of this is is reached—and even then only among men in a somewhat advanced stage of culture. FISHES AND REPTILES. Among fishes a certain of the young. amount of instinct is adapted to the best interests Thus many kinds migrate long distances to seek the water or food proper for the young, but, a suitable general surrounding having been obtained, little or no further care is taken. Only a few species build nests. Certain kinds make very crude nests, such as the hollow scooped out in the sand on some warm, clean, sunny bottom by the male sunfish (see BASS; SUNFISH), or the more elaborate structures of sticklebacks and gobies (qq.v.). Amphibians and reptiles rarely make anything which may be called a nest, but some care for their eggs in very curious ways elsewhere described.

BIRDS. The nest-making of birds is most familiar and perfect, yet it is only among the higher forms that it is manifested to any great extent. In no respect is there greater diversity among birds than in the structure of the nest. As a rule, its character is closely associated with the intelligence of the bird, modified more or less by the necessities of the situation and the structure of the bird's bill and feet. The nests of ostriches and other Ratitæ are mere accumulations of sand or earth, or cavities scraped in the ground. The nests of the lowest water-birds consist of burrows in the ground, or the eggs are laid on the bare earth or rock. Good examples are the guillemots (q.v.). The king-penguin treats its eggs in the same way. Among those a little higher in the scale, nests of sea-weed and coarse grass loosely put together make a home for the young. Most of the ducks and geese build nests of grass, and often include feathers from their own bodies, a habit carried to the extreme in the eider-duck (q.v.). Few of the wading birds build nests, the herons coming nearest to it with a platform of sticks. The grouse and quail, turkey and pheasant, all scrape together nests of leaves and grass on the ground. The allied mound-birds are remarkable for collecting great heaps of decaying vegetable matter, in which the eggs are laid, the heat caused by the decay ripening them. Doves and pigeons usually build a very frail nest of twigs, but a few species are ground breeders. Eagles, hawks, and vultures construct coarse, heavy nests of sticks and twigs on large trees or cliffs, while owls often resort to hollows in