ing. Each borough has a bureau of buildings, the superintendent of which is appointed by the borough president, and is subject to removal by him. In the smaller districts there are local boards of improvement, consisting of the president of the borough as chairman and those members of the board of aldermen who represent the districts within the area subject to improvement. The resolutions of the local board upon certain subjects must be submitted to the Mayor. Most of the offices in the departments are filled in accordance with civil service requirements.

POLICE, FIRE, AND HEALTH DEPARTMENTS. The police commissioner appoints all members of the force from the eligible lists furnished by the civil service commission, and has power of dismissal. He is assisted by three deputies. The department includes also 15 inspectors and one captain to each 50 patrolmen. The total force in February, 1903, of men and officers was 7679. For patrol service the city is divided into 80 precincts, each having its own building with quarters for the men, cells for prisoners, and lodgings for homeless persons. Each precinct is in command of a captain under whom are several sergeants.

On January 1, 1902, the fire department of New York City had an active force of 2602 men. There were 137 engine companies, including 5 fire boats, and 44 hook and ladder companies. The companies constitute battalions, each under the command of a chief of battalion. The chief of department is at the head of the entire force.

The health department is administered by a board of health, consisting of a commissioner appointed by the Mayor, the commissioner of police, and the health officer of the port. The sanitary superintendent is chief executive officer of the board. A corps of medical inspectors is employed for the detection and prevention of disease, the inspection of tenement houses, and the enforcement of the sanitary code. There are also a vaccinating corps, a corps for disinfection, and one for the inspection of milk, meat, and other food products.

WATER SUPPLY. Manhattan and the Bronx have an excellent water supply, derived from the Croton River (q.v.), supplemented by the Bronx River. The Croton River, which is nearly 40 miles north of the City Hall, includes in its basin a number of small natural lakes and three artificial reservoirs, the largest of the latter being Croton Lake, in the main stream of the river. From this lake the aqueducts lead. There are a small receiving and a large retaining reservoir in Central Park, and a high service' reservoir at High Bridge. Another large reservoir is under construction on the site of Jerome Park, and plans have been made for a large distributing reservoir at 135th Street and Tenth Avenue. The storage system has a total capacity of more than 40,000,000,000 gallons. A new dam, the central masonry portion of which is 600 feet long and 260 feet high, is being constructed across the Croton River. This dam will add 21 square miles to the drainage area and increase enormously the storage capacity. There are also three smaller dams in course of construction. The supply reaches the city through two aqueducts, an old one with a capacity of 75,000,000 gallons a day and a new one with a capacity of 318,000,000 gallons a day. The average consumption of water in 1902 was more

than 250,000,000 gallons a day. The Brooklyn water supply is obtained from small local streams, ponds, and wells. There is a large reservoir in the eastern part of the Borough of Brooklyn and a small one near the entrance to Prospect Park. The daily consumption in this borough is about 100,000,000 gallons.

FINANCE. The budget of New York is considerably more than three times that of any other American city, and greater than that of any other city in the world. The actual income for 1901 was $118,740,596, including $1,285,821 received from the State for schools. Of this amount, $76,886,091 was collected from property taxes; $5,557,593 from liquor licenses; $5,048,788 from special assessments; $8,050,900 from water rates; and $2,571,584 from docks and wharves. The total expenditures for the same year were $102,946,573 for maintenance and operation, and $53,451,000 for construction and capital outlay other than loans repaid. The principal items of expenditure for maintenance and operation were: schools, $19,731,629; interest on debt, $13,693,155; police department, $10,199,206; fire department, $4,739,993; hospitals, asylums, almshouses, and other charities, $4,754,380; water-works, $3,000,990. The principal items for construction were: streets, $8,109,494; schools, $5,471,460; ferries and bridges, $4,458,739; water-works, $3,450,870; docks and wharves, $3,322,938. There is a bonded debt of $426,174,823 and a floating debt of $6,306,472. Against this indebtedness there is a sinking fund of $121,340,920. city's legal borrowing limit (exclusive of the water debt) is 10 per cent. of the assessed valuation. The basis of assessment is legally 100 per cent. of the value of both real and personal property. The valuable franchises which have been granted to private companies return an entirely disproportionate income to the city treasury.

The

The expenses of Greater New York are much larger than were the combined expenses of the various component municipalities before consolidation. The increase in the first year after consolidation amounted to $15,000,000. This is due largely to the creation of more salaried offices and to increases in salaries. The salaries paid are the highest prevailing in any city of the world. There is a board of estimate and apportionment, consisting of the Mayor, Comptroller (elected by popular vote), president of the board of aldermen, and the five borough presidents (the presidents of Manhattan and Brooklyn having two votes each), which annually submits the budget to the board of aldermen. The board of aldermen cannot insert new items, increase the amount specified, or vary the stipulated terms and conditions; but there are certain items which it may reduce. The financial department is in charge of the Comptroller, and is divided into five bureaus. All officers in the department except two, one of whom is the city chamberlain, or treasurer, are appointed by the Comptroller.

POPULATION. Greater New York has about twice the population of any other American city, and is exceeded only by London among the cities of the world. This has come about almost wholly in the nineteenth century, during which time the city grew at a rate never equaled. In the colonial period New York ranked below Boston and Philadelphia. In 1790 there was a

population of 33,131; in 1800, 60,515; 1810, 96,373; 1820, 123,706; 1830, 202,589; 1840, 312,710; 1850, 515,477; 1860, 805,658; 1870, 942,292; 1880, 1,206,299; 1890, 1,515,301; and in 1900 (after the creation of a Greater New York), 3,437,202, including 1,850,093 in the Borough of Manhattan, 200,507 in the Borough of the Bronx, 1,166,582 in the Borough of Brooklyn, 152,999 in the Borough of Queens, and 67,021 in the Borough of Richmond. The suburbs on the New Jersey shore of the Hudson (Jersey City, Hoboken, etc.) contain about 300,000 inhabitants. Beyond these immediate suburbs we come to a section of New Jersey embracing Elizabeth, the Oranges, Montclair, Morristown, Plainfield, and many other places which are mainly suburbs of New York, in addition to the two great manufacturing centres of Newark and Paterson, also the homes of great numbers of New York business men. These places have a total population of about half a million. On the northeast the cluster of towns largely inhabited by persons doing business in New York extends beyond the boundary line of Connecticut. Among these may be mentioned New Rochelle, Rye, Portchester, Greenwich, and Stamford. The total population embraced within a radius of 25 miles from the New York City Hall is not far from five millions. As the city grew, the population of New York naturally tended to centre about the lower end of Manhattan, the business district. Inconveniences, too, incident to transportation across the river have aided in confining the population within the narrow limits of Manhattan Island, where the density of population is greater than in any other city whatsoever. The distribution of the population in Brooklyn is more normal. In 1900, 66.70 per cent. of the population of Manhattan and Bronx lived in dwellings containing twenty-one or more persons, while in Brooklyn the corresponding percentage was only 25.70 per cent. In Chicago it was 16.63. The density per acre of New York south of the Harlem River was 129.2. The region of greatest density is the lower East Side, where in the Eighth Assembly District, covering 98 acres of area, there was in 1900 a population of 735.9 to the acre. In the densely populated section, tenement houses having an average height of five or six stories, inadequately lighted and ventilated, and otherwise lacking in sanitary facilities, are the rule. Several large model tenement houses have recently been built, notably those of the City and Suburban Homes Company. The housing problem, therefore, is one of the most difficult with which the city has to deal, and presents phases almost unknown in other large centres of population. A radical tenement house law, which went into effect in 1902, is effecting a great improvement. The problem of congestion is closely related to that arising from the presence in the city of large classes of mostly poor foreigners. The various foreign elements tend to form distinct colonies. In the Eighth District, above mentioned, 67.2 per cent. of the population in 1900 were foreign born, and the greater part of the remainder were children of foreign-born parents. In 1900 the foreign born numbered 1,270,080, or 37 per cent. of the total population of the city. In Manhattan alone, 41.5 per cent. of the total population was foreign born. New York has been always a strikingly cosmopolitan city. During the middle

of the nineteenth century there was a very heavy German and Irish immigration to the city, but before the end of the century the immigration of these nationalities had greatly declined, and there had begun a heavy immigration from the south and east of Europe. According to the census of 1900, the principal foreign countries represented in the immigration to New York City in order of prominence were Germany, Ireland, Italy, Russia, Bohemia, Hungary and Austria, Poland, England, Scotland, and Wales. Few of the many Scandinavian immigrants to the United States have settled in New York. The large immigration from Austria-Hungary, Russia, and Poland consists almost wholly of Jews. Nearly one-fourth of the population of Manhattan are Jews. A large proportion of New York immigrants represent a class of unskilled laborers. The German immigrants, however, have always contained a large class of skilled artisans, who have participated in the more advanced industrial life of the city, and have contributed greatly to its social and artistic life. A much larger percentage of the Irish have been unskilled laborers. The Italians have come mainly from the poorer districts of southern Italy, and almost all are laborers. Most of the coarser labor of the metropolis is done by them. The Jewish immigrants, like the Italians, are extremely poor and mostly unskilled. The majority are employed in the manufacture of clothing; many, however, are small merchants. Both of these elements keep to themselves. It is in the parts of the city occupied by them that the density of population is greatest. The negro population in 1900 numbered 60,666, of whom nearly twothirds were born outside of New York State. Of the total population of the city, 1,705,705 were males and 1,731,497 females.

HISTORY. Probably the first European to visit the vicinity of New York was Giovanni Verrazano, who came in 1524; in 1525 the Spanish navigator Gomez sailed into the harbor; and by 1600 the French seem to have begun an extensive trade with the Indians along the Hudson. In September, 1609, Henry Hudson (q.v.) explored the harbor and the river; in 1613 four trading houses were built on Manhattan Island— "Manhatanis" (meaning 'those who dwell upon an island') being the name applied to the aboriginal Delaware inhabitants; and in 1614 Adrian Block, preparatory to exploring the New England coast, built here his little vessel the Onrust, or Restless, probably the second ship to be built in America. In 1614 the States General of Holland chartered the United New Netherland Company of Amsterdam, and in 1621 this was succeeded by the West India Company, chartered with power to make treaties, maintain courts, and employ soldiers. In 1623 permanent colonists, sent out by the Dutch West India Company, arrived under Cornelius May as Director-General or Governor. In 1624 May was superseded by Verhulst, who in turn was replaced in 1626 by Peter Minuit. Minuit in this year bought the island from the Indians for goods valued at 60 guilders, or $24.00 (about $120.00 in present values), and built near the present Bowling Green a small fort, Fort Amsterdam—the settlement itself, then having a population of 200, being called New Amsterdam. In 1628 a church was organized and the first clergyman, Rev. Jonas Michaelius, arrived at New Amsterdam.

Wouter Van Twiller was Governor of the colony from 1633 to 1638, William Kieft from 1638 to 1647, and Peter Stuyvesant from 1647 to 1664. In 1643 the Dutch, without provocation, massacred 120 Algonquin Indians, who had come to them for protection, and a bloody Indian war ensued, lasting for two years, and almost depopulating the settlement. In 1653 New Amsterdam, with a population of about 800, was incorporated as a city, and in the same year a wall 2340 feet long was built along the site of the present Wall Street as a protection against the English and the Indians.

In March, 1664, Charles II. granted New Netherland to his brother James, Duke of York, and on September 8th Col. Richard Nicolls with an English force took possession of the city and renamed it New York. Nicolls was Governor until 1668, when he was succeeded by Francis Lovelace. On August 9, 1673, the Dutch regained possession, and the province became New Netherland as before, the city becoming New Orange, and Anthony Colve replacing Lovelace as Governor. On November 10, 1674, the Dutch again gave way to the English, Edmund Andros becoming Governor; in 1686 the first city charter, known as the Dongan Charter, from Thomas Dongan, Governor in 1681-88, was issued (though it was never confirmed by James II.); and in 1689, Andros being overthrown, Leisler usurped control and held it until early in 1691, when he was executed for treason. See LEISLER, JACOB.

In 1690 the first intercolonial Congress (called to consider an attack on Canada) was held in New York-Massachusetts, Plymouth, Connecticut, Maryland, and New York being represented and in the same year the only Mayor elected by the people until after 1832 was chosen. Slavery had been introduced in 1625; in 1712 a negro insurrection was put down with much cruelty, twentyone negroes being executed (some by burning, others by hanging, and one by breaking on the wheel); and in 1741 the discovery of a supposed plot, "The Great Negro Plot,' caused a panic, during which four whites were executed, and 154 negroes were arrested, of whom 13 were burned at the stake, 18 were hanged, and 71 were transported. In 1696 William Bradford set up the first printing press in New York; in 1703 the first free school was opened; and in 1725 the first newspaper, the New York Gazette, was founded. A city library was organized in 1729, and a classical academy was opened in 1732. In 1731 a new charter, known as the 'Montgomerie Charter,' was granted to the city. In 1732 a monthly stage was established between New York and Boston, the trip taking two weeks each way, and in 1756 a Philadelphia stage, taking 'three days through only,' began running.

John Peter Zenger, who had founded the Weekly Gazette in 1733, was arrested and prosecuted for libel by the authorities in 1734, but he was acquitted in the following year after a famous trial-his acquittal being regarded as the greatest vindication in the colonial period of the freedom of the press. See ZENGER, JOHN PETER.

In 1765 the Stamp Act Congress (See STAMP ACT) met in New York, and on January 18, 1770, nearly seven weeks before the Boston Massacre, British soldiers killed one citizen and wounded three in a riot caused by the destruction by the soldiers of a liberty pole set up by the 'Sons of Liberty.' This riot, called the 'Battle of

Golden Hill,' is ranked by some writers as "the first conflict of the War of the American Revolution." In 1774, during the excitement over the tea tax, a ship loaded with tea was sent back to England, and the cargo of another was thrown overboard. When news of the battle of Lexington reached New York, a 'Committee of Safety' assumed control of the city, and Governor Tryon took refuge on a British man-of-war. In the early summer of 1776 a large part of the American troops were quartered in New York. On July 8th, in the presence of Washington, the Declaration of Independence was for the first time publicly read to them, and on the 9th the equestrian statue of George III., erected on Bowling Green in 1770, was torn down. On September 14, 1776, a short time after the battle of Long Island (q.v.), the city was evacuated by the Americans and was occupied on the following day by the British, who held it until November 25, 1783-'Evacuation Day.' On September 15, 1776, a large portion of the city was destroyed by fire. During the British occupation the city was the refuge of Loyalists, who came from all quarters to take advantage of British protection, many of the more wealthy and influential residents joining their ranks. From 1785 to 1790 Congress met in New York in the old City Hall, at the corner of Wall and Nassau streets, and here Washington was inaugurated, April 30, 1789.

The

In 1785 a manumission society was formed and the Bank of New York was organized. In 1789 the Tammany Society (q.v.) or Columbian Order was organized. During an epidemic of yellow fever, from October, 1794, to July, 1795, more than 600 persons, and during another in 1798 more than 2000 persons, died. In 1790 the population numbered 33,131, and the city limits were extended to the lower line of the present City Hall Park. In 1805 the population was 78,770, and since then, especially after the War of 1812, when immigration greatly increased, the growth has been very rapid. In 1807 Fulton's steamboat, the Clermont, began running regularly between New York and Albany. In 1812 a steam ferry to Long Island was opened, and a line of Sound steamers was established in 1818, while in 1819 the Savannah, built in New York, successfully crossed the Atlantic. Erie Canal, begun in 1817, was completed in 1825-the first boat, Seneca Chief, reaching New York on November 4th-and gave an extraordinary impetus to the growth of the city. In 1832 an epidemic of cholera caused the death of 4000 persons, and another two years later caused the death of nearly 1000. In 1835, December 16-19, occurred the most disastrous fire in the history of the city, the entire east side below Wall Street, including about 650 stores, the Merchants' Exchange, and the South Dutch Church, being destroyed, with a loss of almost $10,000,000. The financial panic of 1837 caused many failures, and the great destitution and suffering in the city led to the Bread Riots of that year. From 1820 to 1870 riots were frequent, one of the most serious being the Astor Place Riot (q.v.) of May 10, 1849, in which 141 soldiers were wounded, while 34 rioters were killed and many more were wounded. In the same year more than 5000 persons died of the cholera. Another riot occurred in 1857, growing out of a conflict between two police organizations,