that Luke has made a mistake in naming Quirinius instead of Saturninus as the Governor of Syria at the time. Thus both Luke and Matthew agree to the effect that the Nativity took place about B.C. 7 or A.U.c. 747. It would seem that further aid might be derived from Luke iii. 1-3 and 23, which verses apparently state that Jesus was thirty years of age in the fifteenth year of Tiberius Cæsar. But this is not the case. We are uncertain (1) from what date Luke reckoned the reign of Tiberius; (2) how much latitude is to be allowed to the expression "about thirty years;" and (3) how close the connection is between v. 23 and vv. 1-3. For these reasons we must be content with the result stated above, and date the Nativity about B.C. 7. There are no data for determining the month and day of the birth of Jesus. Ancient tradition wavered between two dates, January 6th and December 25th, each of which seems to have been the result of calculation, not based on trustworthy tradition. rius Cæsar John (2) The Date of Jesus' Baptism.—From Luke we learn that John the Baptist took up his work in the fifteenth year of Tiberius. Such, at least, seems to be the meaning of Luke iii. 1-3, "Now in the fifteenth year of the reign of Tibethe word of God came unto in the wilderness." If Luke reckoned the reign of Tiberius from the death of Augustus, the year August 28-August 29 A.D. would be the year intended. If he counted from A.D. 12, when Tiberius was associated with Augustus, as the first year, then A.D. 26-27 would be the year indicated. Accordingly, the baptism Accordingly, the baptism of Jesus was either in A.D. 27 or in A.D. 29. In the Gospel of John we have a datum which enables us to decide between these two dates. In John ii. 20, at the time of Jesus' first public appearance in Jerusalem, which was not long after the beginning of His public ministry, there is the statement that the Temple had been, at the time, forty-six years in the process of construction. Since the reconstruction of the Temple was begun by Herod in B.C. 20-19, the baptism of Jesus could not have been later than A.D. 27. Early in the year A.D. 27 seems, then, the most probable date for this event. (3) The Duration of the Ministry.-The first three Gospels give us only the vaguest hints as to the length of the Lord's public ministry. They begin their narrative of His public life with His work in Galilee after the imprisonment of John the Baptist. But Mark i. 14 ("Now after that John was delivered up, Jesus came into Galilee") seems to imply that some time elapsed between the Temptation and John's imprisonment. This gap is partially filled by the Gospel of John, which also gives a well-ordered arrangement of the events of the ministry narrated by it. Its data are as follows: ii. 13 sqq., Jesus in Jerusalem at a Passover, after His baptism and a brief sojourn in Galilee. iii. 23 sqq., a brief sojourn, length not stated, in Judea, before John was imprisoned. iv. 1-35, Jesus retires into Galilee. On the way, in Samaria, He says to His disciples, "Do ye not say that there are yet four months and the harvest comes?" v. 1, Jesus goes up to Jerusalem to attend a feast (unnamed). vi. 1-4, Jesus is again in Galilee at the time of a Passover. vii. 2 sqq., Jesus goes to Jerusalem to a Feast of Tabernacles. After this there is no mention of a return to Galilee. x. 22, Jesus is in Jerusalem at the Feast of Dedication; thence He retires beyond Jordan. While here He is called to Bethany by the death of Lazarus. He then goes to Ephraim in Judea. xii. 1, six days before the (last) Passover Jesus arrives at Bethany. Two of these data are somewhat uncertain. The reference in iv. 35 to the "four months, and then cometh the harvest," may indicate the actual season of the year when the words were spoken. spoken. In that case Jesus must have passed through Samaria in December or January after His first Passover (John ii. (John ii. 13 sqq.). If the first Passover was that of A.D. 27, the events narrated in chap. iv. took place in December, A.D. 27, or in January, A.D. 28. But it is possible that the statement in iv. 35 may have been a mere proverbial expression used by Jesus to point a lesson. In that case it has no chronological significance, and the journey through Samaria may have taken place in May, A.D. 27. The unnamed feast of v. 1_ ("After_these things there Jerusalem") introduces the greatest element of was a feast of the Jews, and Jesus went up to uncertainty. The main question is whether it was a Passover. If it was, then John's Gospel gives us four Passovers in Jesus' public ministry. There are two weighty reasons against taking the reference in this sense. First, John's usus loquendi would lead us to expect him to have expressly stated that it was a Passover, if such had been the case. Second, a Passover is expressly indicated in the next chapter (John not only a whole year passed over in complete vi. 1-4). If v. 1 refers to a Passover, we have silence by John, but we also have two whole years and more of active public ministry to place before the Passover of John vi. the narrative of John at this place meets that of the other Gospels (Mark vi. 30 and parallels), this does not seem very probable. For such reasons it seems better to take John v. 1 as referring to some minor feast between the two Passovers of ii. 13 sqq. and vi. 1-4. The evidence of the Gospel of John, then, is to the dence of the Gospel of John, then, is to the effect that there were three Passovers in the public ministry of Our Lord, those of the years A.D. 27, 28, and 29. Since (4) The Date of the Crucifixion.-All the Gospels agree that the day of the week was Friday. It is a question whether this Friday was the Passover day or the day after the Passover. Since the Passover always came on the fourteenth day of the Jewish [lunar] month the 14th or on the 15th of Nisan? Nisan, the question is, Was Jesus crucified on point the evidence of the Gospels appears conOn this that Jesus ate his last supper with His discitradictory. The Synoptic Gospels positively state ples on the Passover evening, i.e. on the 14th of Nisan, and that He was crucified on the next or 15th day. But the Gospel of John in several passages, xiii. 1-2, xviii. 28, xix. 13 and 31, appears to place the Crucifixion on the Passover day. Of the references noted, xviii. 28, "they themselves [the Jews] entered not into over, the prætorium, that they might not be defiled, but might eat the Passover," and xix. 14, "Now it was the Preparation (rapaσKevń) of the Passare the most important. It is to be noted, however, that the Gospel of John uses the term rò ráoxa, the Passover, in an inclusive sense to indicate the whole Passover season, just as the Synoptic Gospels use the term тa ǎšvμa, the [Feast of] Unleavened Bread, in the same broad sense. It is also to be noted that in xix. 31 and 42 the word πараσкеvý, literally 'preparation_day,' is used in its common significance of Friday. It is therefore possible that in verse 14 we should interpret so as to read "it was the Friday of the Passover season." So So understood, there is no conflict between John and the Synoptists. If there is actual disagree ment, the evidence may be represented as follows: tianity, (1) in the city of Jerusalem, chaps. i-vii.; (2) among the Jewish population of Palestine and Syria, with the transition to work among the Gentiles, chaps. viii.-xii.; and (3) among the Gentiles through the missionary labors of Paul, chaps. xiii.-xxviii. Since the data in reference to Paul's career are more numerous and exact than those connected with the earlier events, we shall make the chronology of Paul's labors the basis of our investigations. We have to consider the evidence furnished by the following data: (1) Acts ix. 23 sqq. Paul's escape from the Jews at Damascus 'many days' after his conversion. In II. Cor. xi. 32 Paul refers to this event, noting that it took place while Aretas was ethnarch of Damascus. In Gal. i. 18 Paul says that he did not leave Damascus for Jerusalem until three years after his conversion. (2) Events Gospel of John, as to Wednesday Thursday Passover meal, Lord's Supper A.D. 7. Birth of Jesus. 26. John the Baptist opens his ministry. (Early in the year) Jesus begins His ministry. 27. The first Passover, in Jerusalem (John ii. 13 sqq.). 27-29. Passover to Passover, two years of public activity, a year and some months being spent in Galilee. 29. March 18, Friday, the Crucifixion. On Sunday, March 20th, the Resurrection, and 40 days later the Ascension. These results differ from those most commonly accepted, mainly in that they make the ministry cover but two years and a little over instead of three years or more. The main specific difference is in regard to the feast of John v. 1, which is usually taken as a Passover. The most commonly accepted year for the Crucifixion is A.D. 30 instead of A.D. 29, as given above. II. CHRONOLOGY OF THE APOSTOLIC AGE. The Apostolic Age began immediately after the Lord's Ascension. Its close may be considered as marked by the passing away of the Apostles and their companions. Our main authority for this period is the Book of Acts. Incidentally, the Epistles furnish some valuable hints. In Acts we are presented with a sketch of the progress of Chris In all probability Aretas was not ethnarch of Damascus until after the death of Tiberius, March 16, A.D. 37. It is certain that he did not hold this position in A.D. 34. Therefore Paul's conversion was not before A.D. 31, probably not before A.D. 34. (2) Acts xi. 27-30 and xii. 25. Agabus, a prophet, predicted a famine. In consequence, the Christians of Antioch sent aid to Jerusalem by Barnabas and Paul, active workers in the Antioch church. This visit was probably not long before the famine was at its height. Notices in Josephus (Ant., xx. 2, 3 and 5, 2) show that there was such a famine about A.D. 47. The prophecy may well have been uttered two or three years earlier, and the visit may be placed in A.D. 46-47. (3) Acts xiii. 7. Sergius Paulus is mentioned as proconsul of Cyprus. The name of this official has been discovered on an inscription of Cyprus, but his date has not been determined. All that is certain is that he was not proconsul of the island in the years A.D. 51 and 52. (4) Acts xviii. 2 and 12. Paul, soon after his arrival in Corinth on his second missionary journey, meets Aquila and Priscilla, Jews lately banished from Rome in consequence of a decree of the Emperor Claudius. Paul stays in Corinth upward of two years, during which time Gallio was proconsul of Achaia. We have here two data: Claudius's decree and Gallio's proconsulship. The edict of expulsion is mentioned by Suetonius and probably referred to by Tacitus and Dio Cassius, but in such a way that its date cannot be exactly fixed. Orosius (fifth century, A.D.) places it in A.D. 49. As to Gallio, all that can be said is that he was probably not appointed to the office before the recall of his famous brother Seneca from banishment (A.D. 49). Thus A.D. 49-50 may be accepted provisionally as the most satisfactory date for these facts. (5) Acts xx. 6-7. Paul, on his way to Jerusalem, returning from his third missionary journey, kept the Feast of Unleavened Bread at Philippi, Macedonia. Leaving Philippi, in five days Troas was reached. Here he stayed seven days, leaving on Monday. Reckoning back, it becomes probable, but not certain, that the Passover of that year was on Thursday. In that case, the year was probably either A.D. 56 or 57, the probability being in favor of 56. (6) Acts xxiv. 27. After Paul had been detained as a prisoner for two years, Felix, the Roman Governor of Palestine, was succeeded by Festus. Felix was appointed in A.D. 52 by Claudius, having already been in charge of Samaria for some time. In Acts xxiv. 10, two years before Felix's removal, Paul addresses him as having been for 'many years' judge of the nation. The Apostle may have included in the 'many years' the time that Felix spent in Samaria, and the statement should not be pressed as necessitating as many as five or six years after A.D. 52 as the time when they were uttered. Josephus says that Felix, when recalled, had to answer serious charges before Nero, and would have been condemned, had not his wealthy brother Pallas interceded for him. Though Pallas was dismissed from office soon after Nero's accession (A.D. 54), he was for some years a wealthy and influential man. Eusebius's Chronicle places the appointment of Festus in the year September 56September 57. The accuracy of this statement is not beyond doubt. Paul's words in Acts xxiv. 10, as well as the general representation of Felix's administration in Josephus, seem to require a date not earlier than A.D. 58 for the recall of Felix and the appointment of Festus. This date will harmonize with the conclusion reached under No. 5 above. (7) The Death of Paul. All that can be said here is that the most ancient tradition of the Church represents that Paul closed his career by suffering martyrdom at Rome under Nero. As to the date, it is most probable that this took place in the cruel persecution by which Nero sought to divert from himself the suspicion of having burned Rome, i.e. in A.D. 64 or 65. (8) The Period Covered by Acts i.-xii. (in reference to the doings of the Jewish-Christian Church of Palestine). The only fixed date we have is the death of Herod Agrippa I. (Acts xii. 19 sqq.) in A.D. 44. From this we see that the period covered by these chapters is about fifteen years, since the Crucifixion took place A.D. 29. Within the period we have the probable date, A.D. 34, as that for the conversion of Paul. On the basis of the results thus reached we may construct the following table: A.D. 29. Pentecost, first preaching by the Apostles. Acts ii. 29-34 (35). Christianity organized and be- 34-37 (35-38). Paul in Arabia. His return to Damascus and escape thence. He visits Jerusalem and goes thence to Tarsus. Gal. i. 17-21; II. Cor. xi. 32; Acts ix. 30. 34 (35)-44. Rapid extension of Christianity through Palestine, Phoenicia, and Syria, as far as Antioch. Acts ix.-xi. 38-40?. Paul and Barnabas in Antioch. 44. Execution of James, the brother of John. Peter escapes from Herod Agrippa I., who soon after dies at Cæsarea. Acts xii. 46 ?. Paul and Barnabas carry a contribution to Jerusalem. Acts xi. 27-30. 47 (Spring)-48 (Fall). First missionary journey of Paul. Acts xiii.-xiv. (Pentecost ?). The Apostolic Council in Jerusalem. Acts xv. (cf. Gal. ii. 1-10). Barnabas and Mark go to Cyprus. Acts xv. 35-39. 49 49. 49. (Fall)-52 (Summer). The Second Missionary Journey. Acts xv. Acts xv. 49-xviii. 22. I. and II. Thessalonians written from Corinth in 50 and 51. 52 (Early Fall)-56 (Spring). Third Missionary Journey. Acts xviii. 23-xxi. 17. I. Corinthians written from Ephesus, 53-54. II. Corinthians written from Macedonia late in Spring of 55. Galatians written from somewhere on the journey to Corinth, in Summer or Fall of 55. Romans written from Corinth in 56. 56-58. Paul held in Palestine, most of the time in Cæsarea. Acts xxiii. 1. 58 (Fall)-59 (Spring). Paul's voyage to Rome. 59-61. Two years' imprisonment in Rome. Epistles to Philippians, Colossians, Philemon, and Ephesians. 61-64. Missionary journey to Spain. Re visits the East. I. Timothy and Titus written. 64. Again imprisoned in Rome. II. Timothy written. 64 (65). Executed by order of Nero. According to tradition, Peter also was martyred at Rome about the same time. 70. The capture of Jerusalem by the Romans under Titus. The Palestinian Christians scattered. 65 (?)-90 (?). The Apostle John in Asia Minor (Ephesus). The table given above differs from the most commonly received chronology ( (Wieseler's), mainly in that it dates the chief events of Paul's life about two years earlier. Ramsay's dates are, in the main, about one year later than those given above, Harnack's two years earlier. BIBLIOGRAPHY. Of the large body of literature bearing on New Testament Chronology, particular mention may be made of the following: Ideler, Handbuch der mathematischen und technischen Chronologie (Berlin, 1825); Wieseler, Chronologische Synopse der vier Evangelien (Hamburg, 1843; Eng. trans., 2d ed., London, 1878); id., Chronologie des apostolischen Zeitalters (Göttingen, 1848); id., Beiträge zur richtigen Würdigung der Evangelien (Gotha, 1869); Lewin, Fasti Sacri (London, 1865); Schürer, Geschichte des jüdischen Volkes im Zeitalter Jesu Christi (Leipzig, 1886-90; Eng. trans., New York, 1891); Harnack, Chronologie der altchristlichen Litteratur (Leipzig, 1897); Ramsay, Saint Paul the Traveler and the Roman Citizen (New York, 1896); id., Was Christ Born in Bethlehem? (London, 1898). 5000 volumes, and Bethel College (Mennonite). The NEW THEOLOGY, THE, or NEW DIVINITY. A term often applied in the last quarter of the last century to a movement represented by Andover Theological Seminary, and embodied in a small volume by its professors, called Progressive Orthodoxy, published in 1886. It became clear finally that the movement was larger and deeper than this, and the term is now generally applied to those forms of theological effort which attempt to incorporate fully in theology the approved results of modern thinking, especially such as are derived from the general theory of evolution. The new theology cannot be said to be a consistent system of thought, nor uniform among its various advocates and promotors. There are left and right wings. But with various differences of emphasis and of the completeness with which the separate results of the new methods are adopted, the new theology may be said to agree in the following points: the acceptance of evolution as the method of divine providence in the spiritual sphere as well as in the material; the employment of the methods of the higher criticism in the discussion of the origin and authority of both Testaments; the rejection of verbal inspiration and the substitution for it of greater, or sometimes exclusive, emphasis upon revelation (see INSPIRATION); a subjective view of the atonement; increased emphasis upon ethics in distinction from dogmatics, and upon sociological study and work; restatement of positions in eschatology, with a strong tendency to universalism. The tendency of the school is to mini-gaged to a considerable extent in manufacturing. mize the supernatural (miraculous), and in the left wing to exclude it. Every important denomination of Christians has some share in this movement. NEWTON, nū’ton. A city and the countyseat of Jasper County, Ill., 50 miles southwest of Terre Haute, Ind.; on the Embarras River, and on the Indiana and Illinois Southern and the Peoria, Decatur and Evansville railroads (Map: Illinois, D 5). The surrounding region is well adapted to farming and fruit-growing, and there are also coal deposits. The city manufactures flour, woolen goods, lumber products, brick, and tile. Population, in 1890, 1428; in 1900, 1630. NEWTON. A city and the county-seat of Jasper County, Iowa, 36 miles east by north of Des Moines; on the Iowa Central and the Chicago, Rock Island and Pacific railroads (Map: Iowa, D 3). It is the seat of Newton Normal College, and has a Carnegie library ($10,000), and a fine post-office building. The city is surrounded by a district engaged in farming and stock-raising, and manufactures agricultural machines, foundry and machine-shop products, brick and tile, flour, etc. The water-works are owned by the municipality. Population, in 1890, 2564; in 1900, 3682. NEWTON. A city and the county-seat of Harvey County, Kan., 201 miles southwest of Kansas City; on the Missouri Pacific and the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe railroads (Map: Kansas, E 3). It has a public library with over NEWTON. A city in Middlesex County, Mass., adjoining Boston; on the Charles River and on the Boston and Albany Railroad (Map: Massachusetts, E 3). Within the municipal limits are 15 villages, the city occupying an area of about 18 square miles. Newton has a site of great beauty, several hills contributing to its picsuburbs. There are 160 acres of city parks, beturesqueness, and it is one of Boston's handsome sides the Metropolitan Park reservation (118 acres), and the Metropolitan parkways, which extend along the Charles River. The city maintains a public library (61,400 volumes), and is the seat of the Newton Theological Institution (Baptist), opened in 1825, the Lasell Seminary for women, opened in 1851, and the Allen School for boys, opened in 1853. Among the more prominent buildings are the First Baptist Church and Eliot Church, and the high school and several grammar schools. The Eliot Memorial in honor of the 'Apostle to the Indians' stands near the site of Waban's Wigwam, where John Eliot began on October 28, 1646, to preach to the Indians, in the town called 'Nonantum.' A large cemetery is in the heart of the city. Though Newton is primarily a residential city, it is en Its industrial establishments include machine shops, fire-alarm supply works, silk mills, wors- The 1900, 33,587. Settled in 1631 and originally a part of Cambridge (Newtowne), Newton was incorporated as a separate town in 1688, being called New Cambridge until 1692. It was chartered as a city in 1873. Consult Smith, History of Newton, Massachusetts (Boston, 1880). NEWTON. A town and the county-seat of Sussex County, N. J., 60 miles west by north of New York City; on the Delaware, Lackawanna and Western Railroad (Map: New Jersey, C 1). It is known as a summer resort; has the Newton Collegiate Institute and the Dennis Library (subscription), with over 8000 volumes. surrounding country is largely agricultural, though there is considerable mineral wealth, and the city manufactures shoes, silks, paper boxes, and roofing slate. The water-works are owned by the municipality. Population, in 1890, 3003; in 1900, 4376. The NEWTON, ALFRED (1829–). An English ornithologist and zoölogist. He was born at Geneva, Switzerland, of British parents, and graduated at Magdalene College, Cambridge, in 1853. As a traveling fellow of the college he visited Lapland, Iceland, the West Indies, North America, Spitzbergen, and other countries between the years 1854-64, and by bringing the subject to the notice of the British Association he was instrumental in getting passed the acts of Parliament for the protection of birds. He was made vicepresident of the Royal and the Zoological Societies, president of the Cambridge Philosophical Society, and received gold medals from the Linnean and the Royal Society. His publications include: The Zoology of Ancient Europe (1862); Zoology (1874; 2d ed. 1894); The Birds of Greenland (1875); and A Dictionary of Birds (1893-96). He edited The Ibis for five years (1865-70), and contributed the article on Ornithology to the ninth edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica. NEWTON, CHARLES THOMAS (1816-94). An English archeologist. He was educated at Christ Church, Oxford. In 1840 he became assistant keeper of the department of antiquities in the British Museum, and in 1852 obtained the appointment of vice-consul at Mytilene, whence he was transferred in 1853 to Rhodes. His position was avowedly in the interest of the British Museum, and his time largely devoted to archæ ological travels and excavation. In 1856 he began his great work at Budrun, the ancient Halicarnassus, where he discovered the site of the famous Mausoleum, and recovered many remains of the ancient sculptures. He next worked at Branchide and Cnidus, securing valuable results. He was rewarded by an appointment to the consulship at Rome in 1860, and in 1861 was made keeper of Greek and Roman antiquities in the British Museum, a position which he held until failing health led to his resignation in 1885. From 1880 to 1888 he was Yates professor of classical archæology at the University College, London. In 1861 he married Ann Mary, daughter of the artist Joseph Severn, and herself an artist of high reputation. She died in 1869. Newton's great service lay in widening the narrow circle of classical studies in England, by drawing attention to the importance of art and archæology in any estimate of Greek life. For the museum his long term proved of great importance, as he was able to secure large grants of and acquire five valuable collections of antiquities. He received the honorary degree of D.Ĉ.L. from Oxford in 1875, LL.D. from Cambridge, and Ph.D. from Strassburg in 1879. He published many short papers and discussions, some which were collected in his Essays on Art and Archæology (London, 1880), including the best popular account of Greek inscriptions. important works were: History of Discoveries at Halicarnassus, Cnidus, and Branchida (London, 1862-63) and Travels and Discoveries in the Levant (ib., 1865). Other NEWTON, GILBERT STUART (1794-1835). An English portrait and genre painter. He was born at Halifax, Nova Scotia, September 20, 1794, the son of Edward Newton, British collector of customs. Newton's parents had quitted Boston after the evacuation by British troops in 1776, but his mother returned to that city upon the death of his father in 1803. He studied painting with his uncle, Gilbert Stuart. In 1817 he traveled in Italy, and studied at Florence, later visiting Paris, where he was influenced by Watteau. and in 1832 was made Academician. Among his He entered the schools of the Royal Academy, chief works are: "The Deserted" (1821), Metropolitan Museum, New York; "The Lovers' Quarrel" (1826); "The Dull Lecture" (1825), Lenox Library, New York; "Don Quixote in His Study" (1828); "The Lute-Player," New York Historical Society; "Yorick and the Grisette" (1830) and "The Widow, or the Dutch Girl" (1829), National Gallery, London; "Portia and Bassanio" (1831), South Kensington Museum; and his last picture, "Abelard," exhibited at the Royal Academy in 1833. Among his portraits are those of Thomas Moore, Sir Walter Scott, and Washington Irving. Newton's pictures, although deficient in drawing, are good in coloring, refined and individual in conception. Suffering from mental derangement, in 1833 he was removed to an asylum at Chelsea, where he died of consumption, August 5, 1835. An NEWTON, HUBERT ANSON (1830-96). American astronomer and mathematician, best known for his researches on meteors. He was born at Sherburne, N. Y., and graduated at Yale in 1850. In 1855 he was appointed professor of mathematics at Yale. His chief labor, the study of the laws of meteoroids and of comets and their interrelation, began with the attempt to contribute to the theory advanced by Professor Olmsted of Yale in 1833, that meteors were a part of a mass of bodies moving round the sun in a fixed orbit. Newton calculated five possible orbits and showed the mode of deciding between them, by a computation of the secular motion of the node. He supervised the work of the Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1861 in regard to the August and November meteors; prepared a map of the heavens for its use; and identified comets with meteors and shooting stars. This led to his valuable statistical study of comets. On these subjects he became a worldwide authority, winning from the National Academy of Sciences the Smith gold medal for his researches on meteors. Many of these were published in the Memoirs of the National Academy, the Journal of Science, and the American Journal of Science. NEWTON, Sir ISAAC (1642-1727). A famous English mathematician and natural philosopher, |