a bi-partisan organization for the control of an elective government exists. Where, as in European countries, parties are replaced by groups, each has its newspaper. In both cases some papers are known as independent. In all, newspapers exert a double influence. Those who read are directly affected by what is printed as with any printed utterance, but the periodic issue and the consequent array of subscribers or regular readers give newspapers in politics and in other fields a representative character, their influence depending on the fact that what is said expresses the opinion of a great multitude of readers. The skillful editor succeeds in combining leadership in new exigencies and problems with the capacity of expressing the opinion or sentiment that great masses of his readers will feel as new events call for the application of old principles. Two empires, the Roman and the Chinese, had from an early period issues similar to the newspaper. The Acta Diurna (Daily Occurrences) of ancient Rome contained reports of great military achievements and of interesting events at Rome, as reports of elections, trials, games, fires, sacrifices, and miracles. They were written out by officers called actuarii, and deposited among other public archives. Copies were sometimes posted in public places, and sent at irregular intervals to the generals in the provinces, that the army might be informed of what was taking place in other parts of the Empire. They continued to be issued until the downfall of the Western Empire. The Peking Gazette, Tching-pao, "News of the Capital," has appeared since 713 to 741 in the T'ang dynasty at the Chinese capital, and has for many centuries been issued daily. It is printed in a Government edition sent to officials, and in a popular edition with regular subscribers, reprints also appearing in the provinces, both having been furnished from an early period. It consists exclusively of Imperial rescripts, council decrees, and official news. It is undoubtedly the earliest daily in existence.

Neither of these official issues has any relation with the modern newspaper by example, still less by direct descent. The newspaper, as known today, is of composite origin. In the sixteenth century it was represented by news sheets, single folio pages sold by peddlers and criers giving news of a single occurrence. The first dated examples of these appeared in 1498, and some 800 examples are preserved which appeared before 1510.

These small news sheets appeared in Augsburg, Vienna, Ratisbon, Nuremberg, Antwerp, and many other places, generally in the form of letters.

The

extant numbers contain, among other matters, accounts of the discovery of America, of the conquests of the Turks, of the French and Austrian War in Italy, with such local occurrences as executions, inundations, earthquakes, burnings of witches, and child-murders, supposed to be committed by the Jews. Of equal interest are the official Notizie Scritte, established by the Venetian Government in 1566, containing accounts of the wars carried on by the Republic, and of other events of general interest. At first they were not printed, but might be read in various public places on payment of a small coin, called a gazzetta, whence the name Gazette (q.v.).

These represented the issue of floating rumor or a private letter by the presses of the day. As the press ceased to be a personal, and became a

business venture, and regular communication was established by various posts over European countries, these broad sheets of news and opinion developed into the journal regularly issued-of which the Frankfurter Journal, published by Egenolph Emmel in 1615, suspended in 1902, was the first-the 'news-letter,' furnished to the correspondent by men usually in official life at the different capitals, the prototype of the later despatch and correspondent, and the pamphlet, discussing opinion, which began treating public affairs all over Europe from the standpoint of the editorial in the seventeenth century. By the opening of the eighteenth century these became united in daily journals which combined the report of the broad sheet, the correspondence of the news-letter, and the polemics of the pamphlet, adding the advertisement in 1648, and the regular market report at the close of the eighteenth century.

ENGLAND. The founder of the English press was a London printer named Nathaniel Butter (died 1664). Ās early as 1605 he was issuing news pamphlets; and in 1622 he began The News of the Present Week, which under varying titles was continued till 1639. His slips were mostly compiled from similar foreign_sheets, and contained very little home news. But they bore the distinguishing mark of the newspaper: they were published regularly. During the Civil Wars there circulated a large number of sheets, with such names as England's Memorable Accidents; The Kingdom's Intelligence; Mercurius Aulicus; Mercurius Politicus; The Scots Intelligencer; The Parliament's Scout; The Scots Dove; The Parliament Kite; The Secret Owl; Mercurius Mastix; Mercurius Democritus; and Mercurius Acheronticus, or News from Hell. The arrangement of the news was poor in the extreme, and the comment most virulent. The first English newspaper which aimed at general information was the Public Intelligencer, established by Sir Roger L'Estrange in 1663; it was dropped soon after the appearance of the London Gazette, the first number of which was published at Oxford, November 7, 1665. A second paper, called The Observer, was started by L'Estrange in 1681. In the reign of Charles II. the development of the newspaper was checked by the rigid enforcement of the licensing act of 1662. Under that régime nothing but an official organ could long survive. The repeal of the licensing act in 1695 opened a new era in English journalism. Newspapers at once sprang up in London and in other cities. Besides news-letters, flying posts, and mercuries, appeared the Edinburgh Gazette, a semi-weekly (1699); the Daily Courant, the first English daily (1702); the Review, established by Defoe for the discussion of political questions (1703); and the Orange Postman, the first penny paper (1709).

The

Though the licensing act was of the past, the newspaper writer was held to strict account for what he printed. During the reign of George III. prosecutions were especially common. usual result was to give increased currency to the doctrines assailed, and to confer a fictitious importance on traders in politics, by whom many of the journals were conducted. The first attempt at Parliamentary reporting was also resented by the House of Commons as a breach of privilege, but the imprisonments of 1771 ended in the tacit concession of publicity of discussion, which has

ever since prevailed. The Speaker in 1893 excluded the representative of the London Chronicle from the Commons gallery, and it was generally accepted as within his power. A greater obstacle encountered by the press was the stamp tax. In 1712 a duty of a halfpenny per sheet was placed on every paper of a sheet and a half. It put an end to Defoe's Review, Addison's Spectator, and 'all the little penny papers.' The tax was raised in 1757 to a penny a copy; in 1776 to a penny and a half; in 1789, to twopence; in 1794, to twopence-halfpenny; in 1797, to threepence-halfpenny; and in 1815 to fourpence. At this time the usual price per copy was sevenpence. In 1836 the tax was reduced to a penny, and in 1855 abolished altogether. And in 1861 the duty on paper was repealed. As a result, newspapers increased enormously in number, and the price per copy was reduced to the present level, from threepence to a halfpenny.

Notwithstanding these exorbitant imposts, which were at first intended to be as deadly as the old licensing act, many newspapers were established, and as their scope widened they became more and more important. The Saint James's Post and the Saint James's Evening Post, each started in 1715, were fused in the Saint James's Chronicle (1724), the liveliest paper of the period. The London Daily Post and General Advertiser, founded in 1726, changed its name in 1752 to the Public Advertiser, and was afterwards famous for the contributions of 'Junius.' In 1762 John Wilks issued the first number of the North Briton. The Morning Chronicle, established in 1769, was the first newspaper to give adequate reports of Parliamentary debates; it invented the leading article; and in its columns first appeared Hazlitt's dramatic criticisms. It was soon rivaled by the Morning Post (1772) and the Morning Herald (1781). The London Daily Universal Register, begun in 1785, was turned into the Times in 1788. From the first, the Times, under the direction of John Walter (q.v.), devoted itself mainly to a discussion of public affairs, governmental, educational, and commercial. Its Parliamentary reports and 'leaders' soon became the best, and in course of time it was recognized as 'the leading journal of Europe.' It was the first to discard the handpress and to substitute steam (1814). In 1846 appeared the Daily News with Dickens as editor; and in 1855 the Daily Telegraph, the first penny paper of the nineteenth century, which gained an immense audience under the régime of G. A. Sala. The Standard, now the chief Conservative newspaper, was started in 1827, as an evening edition of the Morning Herald. It made a stout fight against Catholic emancipation. Its cause lost, it lived a lingering life until revived in 1876 by its able editor, W. H. Mudford. Other popular London dailies are the Globe (1803); the Echo (1868), the first London halfpenny newspaper; the Pall Mall Gazette (1865), which John Morley turned from its conservative ways into a powerful Radical organ; Saint James's Gazette (1880); the Evening News (1881); the Star (1888); Westminster Gazette (1892); the Sun (1893); and the Daily Mail (1896), founded by A. C. Harmsworth, who is a striking figure in recent journalism.

The London literary and society papers have

a line of connection with Addison. The numerous imitations of the Spectator (1711-12) were

essays on manners and literature. The nineteenth century type of the weekly review was set by Leigh Hunt in the Examiner (1808), which combined literature and politics. Under its first editor and Albany Fonblanque (q.v.), it had a brilliant career, as an exponent of current radicalism. The Athenæum (1828) confines itself to literature, art, and music. Though it has had many rivals, it is to-day one of the most trustworthy reviews in the world. The Academy (1869) is similar in design, but runs more to literary gossip. The Saturday Review (1855), once the most solid, is now the 'smartest' of English weeklies. The Spectator (1828), under R. S. Rintoul, exerted for thirty years a mighty influence for reform. After R. H. Hutton assumed the editorship (1860), it became less radical in tone; and its sane discussions of politics and literature were among the best that journalism has ever offered. It still holds its high position. high position. As the champion of radicalism, the Speaker was established in 1890 by T. Wemyss Reid. Other weekly reviews of literature, society, and politics (one or all), are the Literary World (1868); the National Observer (1887); the Outlook (1898); Literature (1897); the Pall Mall Budget (1868); the Saint James's Budget (1880); the Weekly Sun (1891); the Guardian (1846); the Weekly Register (1849); Pearson's Weekly (1890); Vanity Fair (1868); Society (1878); the Pelican (1887); the Critic (1895); Lloyd's Newspaper (1842); Reynolds's Newspaper (1850); the Referee (1877); the brilliant World (1874), founded by Edmund Yates; and Truth (1877), edited by Henry Labouchere. Exceedingly popular are several light journals approaching the magazine, such as TitBits (1881) and Answers (1888). At the head of illustrated weeklies stand the Illustrated London News (1842); the Graphic (1869); the Lady's Pictorial (1880); the Gentlewoman (1890); and Black and White (1891). There are also reviews for distinct trades, professions, and pastimes; the Illustrated Sporting and Dramatic News (1874); the Cycle (1893); the Musician (1897); the Economist (1841); the Statist (1878), for the markets of finance; Engineering (1866); and so on through many phases of contemporary life. Among comic journals Punch (q.v.) is still supreme.

The press of London, taken collectively, has passed through three broadly marked stages. It began on a mere transcript of the city's rumor, gossip, and abuse. Repressed by the licensing act for a generation, it took two forms on its repeal, 1695, one literary, of which Addison's Spectator was the highest type, and the other bitterly polemic (L'Estrange and Defoe). In these journals, which appeared in quick succession for a century, the personality of the editor was decisive. With the Napoleonic wars English journalism entered on a third stage, led and molded by John Walter, the founder of the London Times, in which the personality of the editor became only one factor, though still of importance, in a compact organ of public opinion and vehicle of public news, whose articles were anonymous and whose editor was by a transparent fiction unknown. The weight and influence of journals in this period turned on the success with which editorials expressed the opinions of the ruling forces of the nation, of a party, a class, or an interest, and the accuracy and impartiality with which its

news columns recorded facts. While this type was most completely developed in the Times, it was apparent in all English periodicals, daily, weekly, and monthly, from the Napoleonic wars until the defeat of Gladstone's Irish Home Rule Bill recast party relations and based the Conservative-Imperialist majority on a mass vote. With this period, now nearly twenty years distant, English dailies began developing circulation independent of influence, signed articles and the personal journalist became conspicuous, and the publisher with an avowed commercial aim had an increasing control and influence. The earlier newspaper, like the Times, waned in weight, and the type of the new is not yet developed.

The earliest provincial English newspaper was the Worcester Postman (1690), which, under the name Berrow's Worcester Journal, still circulates freely through the West Midlands. Five years later was founded the Mercury, now called the Lincoln, Rutland, and Stamford Mercury. In 1706 appeared the Norwich Postman at a penny, with the announcement that a halfpenny would not be refused. It was followed by the Norwich Mercury (1714), which still exists. Among other early successes were the Nottingham Courant (1710), which with changed name continued till 1886, when it was incorporated with the illustrated Weekly Express; the Newcastle Courant (1710), with a present large circulation in the north; the still prosperous Hereford Journal (1713); the Leeds Mercury (1718), one of the best of provincial papers; the Salisbury and Winchester Journal (1729), now an influential paper; and the Birmingham Gazette (1741), to-day one of the leading Midland dailies. These examples, without the catalogue of numerous failures, show how the newspaper spread through England early in the seventeenth century. They were, however, small sheets, and continued to be such till about 1860. Still other well-known English papers are the Leeds-Yorkshire Post (1754), with a daily since 1866 and an evening issue since 1890; the Newcastle Chronicle (1764), now issuing two daily editions; the Liverpool Courier (1808), two daily issues and a weekly; the Leicester Daily Post (1872); the Sheffield Weekly Telegraph, with a circulation of 215,000; and the Manchester Guardian (1821), which has a reputation far beyond England for its independence and able comment. Wales depends largely upon the newspapers of the border counties. She has, however, several English journals of her own; as the North Wales Chronicle (Bangor, 1807); the South Wales Daily (Cardiff, 1872), in the Liberal interest; and the Western Mail (1869), in the Conservative interest. A few newspapers are printed in the Welsh language. Among them are Y Genedl Gymreig (The Welsh Nation) and Baner ac Amserau Cymru (Banner and Times of Wales). SCOTLAND very naturally had a hand in the numerous sheets employed to circulate information during the civil wars. The first to be printThe first to be printed in Scotland was the Mercurius Politicus (Leith, 1653; 1653; Edinburgh, 1654-60). Under the title Mercurius Publicus, it continued till 1663. The Mercurius Caledonius (Edinburgh, 1660) failed after ten issues. The establishment of the newspaper in Scotland was due to James Watson, who was both editor and printer. He started the Edinburgh Gazette (1700); the Edinburgh Courant (1705), a tri

weekly, which suspended after fifty-five numbers; and the Scots Courant (1706), continued till 1718. In 1718 appeared the Edinburgh Evening Courant, and two years later the Caledonian Mercury, which continued for nearly a century and a half. The Scotsman (Edinburgh, 1817), a daily since 1855, the most substantial journal in Scotland, is also most favorably known in the United States. Among the numerous other good Scotch journals are the Glasgow Herald (1782), an independent daily with a weekly issue; the Glasgow Weekly Mail (1862); the Dundee Advertiser (1801), daily; the Dundee Weekly News (1855), having a circulation above 250,000; the Aberdeen Journal (1748), daily and weekly; and the North British Daily Mail (Glasgow, 1847).

IRELAND. During the civil wars there were printed in London several sheets containing news from Ireland, as Warrented Tidings from Ireland (1641) and Mercurius Hibernicus (1644). The first real Irish newspaper was the Dublin News-Letter (1685). Fifteen years later came the first Dublin daily, Pue's Occurrences, which was continued for a half century. In 1728 appeared another daily, Falkener's Journal. Esdaile's News-Letter (1744), changed to Saunders's News-Letter (1754), a Dublin tri-weekly and then a daily, lasted till 1879. The official Dublin Gazette (1710?) still continues. oldest provincial Irish newspapers still existing are the daily Belfast News Letter (1737), the semi-weekly Waterford Chronicle (1766), and the Limerick Chronicle (1766). Among the most flourishing Dublin newspapers are the famous Freeman's Journal (1763); the Weekly Nation (1847); the Evening Telegraph (1877); and Sport (1881). The Belfast Northern Whig (1824), with a large circulation in Ulster, is also well known outside of Ireland.

The

THE BRITISH COLONIES. In British North America the chief places from which newspapers (daily and weekly) are diffused are Toronto, Montreal, Ottawa, Quebec, and Halifax. Among the earliest journals were the Halifax Gazette (1751), which lasted hardly twenty years, and the Montreal Gazette (1765), now a daily and weekly. Toronto, though later in the field, takes the lead to-day with its five dailies and many weeklies, among which are the Globe (morning, evening, and weekly), the Daily Mail, and Evening News. Quebec and Ottawa support several dailies and weeklies in French.

In

INDIA. The deportation clause in the early libel act, censorship, and a rigid license act restricted journalism in India, and a press law still leaves all newspapers published in the vernacular subject to administrative suppression. Anglo-Indian journalism began with the Indian World, Calcutta, edited by William Duane in 1794, deported by the East India Company. He was afterwards editor of the Aurora, Philadelphia, Pa. About thirty years later J. S. Buckingham was deported for a like reason. 1800 nine newspapers were started and soon suspended. Early in the nineteenth century the English papers were the Englishman, started in 1821 as John Bull in the East, Hurakarn, Calcutta Star, and Friend of India. Much of Rudyard Kipling's early work appeared in the Lahore Civil and Military Gazette. In Calcutta nine dailies are published in English and seven in the vernacular. The Indian Daily Mirror (1863) is the first daily in English edited by natives, The Hindu of

Madras is the oldest daily in that city. In all, five dailies in English are conducted by natives. There are in the Empire about 140 English and about 300 native newspapers. The largest circulation of the latter is 25,000, and most circulate a few hundreds. The vernacular press is for the most part bitterly opposed to the Government, and is generally edited by Bengalis.

AUSTRALASIA AND SOUTH AFRICA. Journalism in Australia began with the Sydney Gazette and New South Wales Advertiser (1803-04), of which but one complete file is in existence at the Sydney Government House. The history of journalism in Australia is scattered with failures from 1810 to 1860. But to-day the dailies and weeklies of large circulation are numerous. Though the press has been established in the small towns, the great journalistic centres are Melbourne and Sydney; and next to them, Adelaide and Brisbane. We may cite for Melbourne, the Argus, the Age, and the numerous journals devoted to building, mining, stock-raising, and shipping; for New South Wales, the Sydney Morning Herald, the Australian Star, and the Daily Telegraph; for South Australia, the Register; for Queensland, the Brisbane Courier. The Australian papers are remarkable for the large number of pages in an issue, larger in proportion to population and circulation than in any other country, particularly in the case of weeklies.

New Zealand's first paper was the New Zealand Herald (1841), now consolidated with the Auckland News. It was published for a year, revived (1863) by W. C. Wilson, and merged in its present ownership (1864). It is one of two dailies in Auckland. The Times, Wellington, is a typical and leading daily. A Maori paper, Te Pakio Matirki, is published by a former chief, Tawhiao. The newspaper has followed the colonist to Cape Colony, Natal, and to other British possessions in Africa, and throughout the world. Cape Colony has several weeklies and three dailies, of which may be mentioned the Cape Argus and the Cape Times, both daily and weekly.

FRANCE. The now flourishing Gazette de France (daily) is the oldest of all French newspapers. As the Gazette it was established at Paris in 1631 under the patronage of Richelieu by Théophraste Renaudot (1584-1653). It first appeared weekly with a monthly supplement, and afterwards as a semi-weekly. Being thus a continuous record (except for a slight suspension) of foreign and domestic events for toward three centuries, it possesses very great historical value. In its arrangement of foreign news first and home news last, it also set an example which has generally prevailed in French journalism. Before the close of the seventeenth century it began to give space to commerce, theatrical announcements, and advertisements. The Gazette Burlesque (1650-65), the first journal of the kind, aimed to be the chronique scandaleuse of Paris. The two types thus established were continued in the Mercure Galant (1672), which, under different names, commonly the Mercure de France, was continued, with short interruptions, down to 1853. The rather insipid Journal de Paris (1777-1819) is said to have been the first Parisian daily. During the Revolution journals sprang up rapidly as organs of the various

parties, but they soon expired. Two, however, have lived till the present time: the Journal des Débats (1789) and the Moniteur Universel (1789), the official organ under the first Napoleon. The Constitutionnel, in which SainteBeuve began the Causeries du Lundi, dates from 1815. In 1836 were established two cheaper papers, the Presse and the Siècle, now popular dailies. The Figaro, the modern journal de scandale, established in 1854, became a daily in 1866. It has had considerable influence on the lighter newspaper in England and elsewhere. The Charivari (1832), a journal satirique, has likewise been imitated in many countries. The Patrie, political, commercial, and literary, was a daily from the first (1841). Of all Parisian newspapers, perhaps the Temps (a daily, 1861) has the most solid reputation abroad. The Parisian political press is further represented by the Soir (1870), the Matin (1884), and many others. The Petit Journal (1863), the first French paper selling at five centimes (half the usual price), at once gained a circulation of 100,000. After arrangements were made whereby it could be furnished throughout France at the same price, its daily issue rapidly increased till it reached a million. French newspapers contain less news than the English or the American. Space is thus found for the feuilleton, a literary essay, sketch, or short story, an indispensable feature of the French journal. Paris is famous for her weeklies devoted to art, fashion, literature, and the professions. Outside of Paris, the larger towns support several dailies.

BELGIUM. Antwerp has already been mentioned as one of the places from which were issued the news-letters of the sixteenth century. They were succeeded by the Nieuwe Tijdinghen of Antwerp (1605?), on which were founded the Posttijdingen (1637-44) and the Gazette van Antwerpen (down to 1827). werpen (down to 1827). To the period 1640-50 belong the Nieuwe Tijdinghen of Bruges, the Brusselsche Gazette, and Le Courier Véritable des Pays-Bas (Brussels), which, as the official Gazette de Bruxelles and the Gazette des Pays-Bas, continued till 1791. At that time the most outspoken political journal was the Annales Politiques of Linguet (often suppressed). The Belgian press, held in firm restraint during the Spanish, Austrian, and French rule, became practically free on the independence of Belgium (1830). Antwerp with its seven dailies has been far outstripped by Brussels, which has now about twenty dailies. The Belge, and the Journal de Bruxelles. At Antwerp chief are the Indépendance Belge, the Etoile and at Ghent dailies are published in Flemish. and at Ghent dailies are published in Flemish. noted for the accuracy of their commercial news. HOLLAND. The papers of Holland were long Since 1830 they have given more attention to politics. At present the principal Dutch dailies are the Allgemeene Handelsblad and Nieuws van den Dag, both of Amsterdam; the Amsterdamsche Courant; the Journal de la Haye; the Haagsche Courant; and the Staats Courant-published at The Hague. Other places of active journalism of which are illustrated, are also common. are Haarlem and Rotterdam. Weeklies, several

SWITZERLAND. The Swiss papers are devoted mostly to local interests. They are, however, well managed, especially the dailies at Geneva, Berne, and Lausanne. For tourists there is published at Geneva the Swiss and Nice Times, in both French and English,