by biciliate sperms (d) which have been produced in numbers in special cells of the branched hairs arising in similar pits. Fertilization occurs by the union of sperm and egg. The latter then grows at once into a new rockweed, its base developing into a holdfast and its apex into a thallus (e).

are the 'rockweeds' and 'gulfweeds.' The former, also called 'wrack' and 'bladder-wrack,' cover the rocks between tide marks with thick fringing growth. Most of the rockweed is Fucus, a form with a forkingly branched thallus, that bears swollen tips, and in some species special air bladders that serve to float the branches. The gulfweeds (Sargassum) have one of the most highly differentiated vegetative bodies among the alga. The species are found in warmer waters than most brown algæ. In addition to the holdfast and branching stalk, there are delicate leaves and small berry-like air bladders on short pedicels, besides specialized portions that bear sexual organs Certain species (as Sargassum bacciferum) will vegetate luxuriantly when floating in midocean, thus forming the large masses of gulfweed met by ships, especially in certain warmer parts of the Atlantic.

The most comprehensive treatment of the group is in Engler and Prantl, Die natürlichen Pflanzenfamilien (Leipzig, 1887-—); Murray, Introduction to the Study of Seaweeds (New York and London, 1895). See ALGÆ.

PHAER, fā'ēr, or PHAYER, THOMAS (1510?1560). An English translator, educated at Oxford and at Lincoln's Inn. As a lawyer he aimed to popularize legal methods. To this end he wrote two legal handbooks. Rewarded for his service by the appointment as solicitor in the court of the Welsh marches, he settled at Kilgerran, in Pembrokeshire, where he passed most of his life. He also studied medicine, and published a popular book called The Regiment of Life, containing a treatise on the plague (1546). To the Mirror of Magistrates (1559) he contributed a poem on a legend connected with Owen Glendower. Phaer is now remembered chiefly for his translation of Vergil's Eneid into English ballad metre (7 books, 1555-58; two more books, published posthumously with the first seven, 1562). The translation was completed by Thomas Twine in 1584. Vergil had been translated earlier into the Scotch dialect by Gawin Douglas (q.v.), and the Earl of Surrey (q.v.) had completed two books.

Reproduction among Phæophyceae is either sexual or non-sexual. In non-sexual reproduction motile spores (zoospores) are formed by the division of the protoplasm of a cell and the escape of the organized parts into the water (Fig. 1, 3). Sexual reproduction is either isogamous or heterogamous. In isogamous union sex cells (gametes), in form and origin like zoöspores, fuse in pairs. Sometimes in hehavior they can be distinguished as male and female, as in Ectocarpus (Fig. 1, 2, a, b). Heterogamous reproduction may be illustrated by Fucus. The eggs, eight in number (Fig. 2, b), are formed in a specialized oögonium, which develops in a pit on the surface of a swollen branch, called a conceptacle. They escape into the water, where they are met

mene.

PHA/ETHON (Lat., from Gk. paélwv, shining). In the Greek poets, a not infrequent title of Helios, the sun-god. Phaethon, in Greek legend, is also a son of Helios and the Oceanid ClyTo prove his descent, he went to his drive the chariot of the sun. father's palace and insisted on attempting to Unable to control the fiery horses, he was carried from his course, and, approaching too near the earth, wrought great damage. Whereupon the earth cried to Zeus for help, who struck down Phaethon with a thunderbolt into the Eridanus, a mythical river, later identified with the Po. His sisters, the Heliades, found the body, and bewailed the loss until they were changed to poplars and their tears to amber, to which the rays of the of Euripides the youth appeared as the favorite sun gave its special glow. In the lost Phaëthon of Aphrodite, who had placed him in charge of her temple. Consult Knaack, Quæstiones Phaethonteæ (Berlin, 1885).

PHAETON. A form of carriage for pleasuredriving drawn by one or two horses. The term is more often applied to a low easy carriage driven by ladies and known as a pony phaeton, although there are the mail phaeton and the spider phaeton, which are high carriages suitable for park driving, with a seat in front for the driver ́and a companion, and a rear seat for a groom. PHAËTON. See TROPIC-BIRD.

PHAGEDENA, făj′ê-dēnå (ML., from Lat. phagedæna, from Gk. payédaivai, phagedaina, cancer, from payeîv, phagein, to eat). A term used in surgery to designate any obstinate and rapidly destructive form of ulceration. The process usually occurs in those whose systems are exhausted by disease and whose vitality is lowered by un

hygienic surroundings. When an ulcer assumes a phagedenic character it enlarges rapidly; its edges are ragged and thin; its base is covered with an unhealthy slough; the discharge is thin, reddish, and offensive, and around the whole is a zone of red and deeply congested tissue. There is no tendency toward healing. The treatment consists in the local application of caustics or excision, and the administration of stimulants, tonics, and nutritious food, together with measures to promote the most favorable hygienic conditions.

Phagedena gangrænosa is a term sometimes applied to 'hospital gangrene,' a disease which formerly prevailed in prisons and hospitals, but which, owing to sanitary reform and the introduction of antiseptic measures, is now practically extinct.

PHAGOCYTE (from Gk. payeîv, phagein, to eat + KÚTOs, kytos, hollow, cell). A microbe-destroying cell residing free in the animal system. About 1883 Metchnikoff found that the individual cells of the stomachs of sponges took in solid particles of food and digested them, and this he called intracellular digestion. This function is performed by individual, free, or 'wandering' mesoderm cells, resembling amœbæ. Such wandering cells, in the cases of many of the lower animals, ingest or absorb parts of the body which become useless or by decay harmful to the organism. Besides this these free amoeboid cells can and do capture and devour foreign bodies and particles; they take up anything hard or soft which occurs in or is carried into the body; and when such cells are confronted with a large mass of food-material, which they cannot devour singly, they usually fuse into a plasmodium, which eats up the whole available food. Such bodies as cannot be eaten are sur

rounded and isolated. Led by these facts, Metchnikoff threw out the remarkable theory that inflammation in the vertebrates is due to the struggle between the white corpuscles of the blood and the disease-germs within it. Thus a new importance was lent to the leucocytes or white amoeboid corpuscles, viz. that they act as microbe-eaters or phagocytes.' Metchnikoff injected fluids containing bacteria or microbes beneath the skin of various invertebrate animals. They were soon found within the amoeboid cells, and if such microbes developed spontaneously in the wounds of such animals, they were absorbed in the same manner. Kovalevsky, a few years later, made similar observations in compound ascidians. When an individual died it was attacked and absorbed by the mantle cells of the colony, which also sought to destroy incoming bacteria, as was proved by experiment. Kovalevsky concluded that the passage of the wandering cells to the surface of the epithelium is a means of protection against the intrusion of agents of disease. These discoveries and theories mark an epoch in biology in its application to medical knowledge.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. Metchnikoff, "Researches on the 'Intracellular Digestion' of Invertebrates,”

Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science, vol. xxiv. (London, 1884); Leçons sur la pathologie comparé de l'infammation, faites à l'Institut Pasteur en avril et mai 1891 (Paris, 1891). PHAGʻOCYTO'SIS. See INFLAMMATION.

PHALANGER (Fr. phalanger, from phalange, phalanx, from Lat. phalanx, from Gk. páλayš, line of battle, rank of soldiers, round piece of wood, joint between the fingers and toes). Any of the marsupials of the family Phalangeridee, which are characterized preeminently by having five fingers and toes, the second and third bound together. The thumb is opposable and nailless. The tail is nearly always long and prehensile. The family is divisible into four sections, and includes a considerable variety of form. Thus the true or typical phalangers include the various species of cuscus (q.v.), and various largish species, some arboreal and some terrestrial, besides the petaurists or flying phalangers (q.v.; also TEGUAN), and the dormouse phalangers' of the genus Dromicia. Another group contains the koala (q.v.), a third the wombat (q.v.), a fourth the aberrant little tarsipes of Western Australia, which is only seven inches long, and uses its long, slender tongue to extract honey from flowers, as well as to catch the small insects which constitute most of its food. The phalangers are united with the kangaroos by descent, and are now separated from them only by the musk-kangaroo (Hypsoprymnodon). Typical members of this family are shown in the accompanying plate.

PHALANX (Lat. phalanx, from Gk. páλays, line of battle, row of soldiers, round piece of wood, joint between the fingers and toes). The ancient Greek name for the heavy infantry in line of battle. The heavy-armed hoplites were only of service when stationed in a long straight line in close order. In the Homeric poems there are only shadowy traces of a regular line of battle, and the development of the typical Greek formation seems to have been largely the work of the Spartans during their struggles for supremacy in the Peloponnesus. As the principle of formation was the desire to present an equal line to the enemy, the depth and formation depended on circumstances. The usual depth seems to have been eight men, but Miltiades at Marathon weakened his centre in order to extend his line, and at Delium the Theban column was twenty-five deep. It is not until the fourth century B.C. that we find other troops of practical importance in deciding the Greek battles. During that century the improved equipment of the peltasts, or light-armed troops, made them able to meet the phalanx, if able to choose their ground and avoid the direct attack. Epaminondas gave a new direction to the art of war by replacing the old attack along the whole line with the decisive onset of one wing, drawn up in a heavy column (at Leuctra fifty deep), while the rest of the line in ordinary depth served to check the enemy. check the enemy. Philip of Macedon learned his military science at Thebes, and reorganized his army by the introduction of a regular infantry besides the hereditary cavalry of the nobles. These soldiers were armed with a small shield, about eighteen inches in diameter, corslets, and long spears, and fought in closer order than was usual among the Greeks. This phalanx seems to have been a mobile body, but rather on the heavy cavalry as the offensive force, probably Philip and certainly Alexander relied and used the phalanx to hold the main line of the enemy in check, while the cavalry crushed his wing or turned his flank. The phalanx of

Alexander seems to have had pikes of different lengths, the longest being about seventeen feet, and of course requiring the use of both hands. Though intended to fight in line as a single mass, it was also capable of breaking into small tactical units able to manœuvre separately, if the nature of the ground or the development of the battle made it desirable. The successors of Alexander gradually changed his fundamental principles, and depended again upon the phalanx to decide the day. This led to even closer massing of men and increase of the length of the lances, till the mass became irresistible if unbroken, but unwieldy and utterly helpless if broken by uneven ground, as was proved in many a battle against the Roman legions. This later phalanx was regularly drawn up sixteen men deep, and either about three feet apart, body included, or only about eighteen inches with shields touching; a formation which made any turning on the part of individuals impossible. The lances were about twenty feet long, and those of the first five ranks projected in front; the others held their spears over the shoulders of their comrades, ready to drop them if occasion arose. Consult: Droysen, "Griechische Kriegsalterthümer," in Hermann, Lehrbuch der griechischen Antiquitäten (Freiburg, 1888); Bauer, in Müller's Handbuch der klassischen Altertumswissenschaft, vol. iv. (Munich, 1893); Delbrüch, Geschichte der Kriegskunst (Berlin, 1900); Lammert, Polybios und die römische Taktik (Leipzig, 1889).

A

PHALARIS (Lat., from Gk. Þáλapıç). tyrant of Agrigentum in Sicily, whose rule lasted from about 570 to 549 B.C., when he was killed in a popular revolt. He maintained himself by mercenaries, and chiefly by stratagem extended his power on all sides. The tradition, at least as old as Pindar, that he gratified his savage nature by roasting persons alive in a brazen bull, has made him the universal type of the cruel tyrant. A collection of letters which bears his name, represents him as a kindly and cultivated prince; but Bentley in his famous Dissertation (first published in 1699) showed that these are probably forgeries of the Christian Era. See BENTLEY, RICHARD. Consult: Freeman, History of Sicily, (Oxford, 1891).

PHALARIS. See CANARY-GRASS.

PHALʼAROPE (from Gk. paλapís, phalaris, coot, ποús, pous, foot). A sandpiper-like shorebird of the family Phalaropodidæ, having lobate feet and a rather long bill, which is slender, weak, and straight. Phalaropes differ from sandpipers, however, in that they spend the greater part of their time in swimming on the sea, where they seek mollusks and other small marine animals for their food. They are very fearless of man and are said to be easily tamable, but the flesh is oily and unpalatable. The phalaropes differ from The phalaropes differ from most other birds in the remarkable relative condition of the two sexes. The females are not only larger and more brightly colored, but they do the courting, and, after they have secured a mate and laid their 3 or 4 eggs, they leave the male to do the incubating. Three species only are known, all inhabitants of the Northern Hemisphere and two circumpolar. Each is now made the type of its own genus. The northern phalarope (Phalaropus lobatus) has the membrane of the toes scalloped and the bill very slender. It breeds in

VOL. XIII.-66.

the Arctic regions and migrates southward on the approach of winter. The nest is a shallow depression in the ground lined with grass and moss. The eggs are olive-gray or buffy-white, heavily blotched with chocolate-brown. Its entire length is rather less than 8 inches. The tail is short. It is a beautiful bird, and remarkable for the great difference of its summer and winter plumage, the prevailing tint in winter being a delicate gray, while in summer the upper parts exhibit a fine mixture of slate-gray and buff, sides and front of neck rufous, and the breast and under parts are white. The red phalarope (Crymophilus fulicarius) is rather larger than the northern phalarope, and is, like it, very graceful in form and movements, and finely colored. The membrane of the toes is scalloped, but the bill is stouter, flattened, and has a lancet-shaped tip. The third species is Wilson's phalarope (Steganopus tricolor), which is an American bird, found in summer north to the Saskatchewan, and in winter south to Brazil and Patagonia. It is rare in the East, but abundant in the Mississippi Valley. It is the largest of the three species, being nine inches or more in length. The toemembranes are plain and unscalloped. Consult: Coues, Birds of the Northwest (Washington, 1874). See Plate of EGGS OF WATER AND GAME BIRDS.

In

PHALLICISM, or PHALLISM (from phallic, from Gk. paλЯɩкós, phallikos, relating to the male organ, from pa2λós, phallos, male organ). The worship of the generative power, as expressed most strongly by adoration of the male organ. As a cult, phallicism is typical of the Oriental races, especially Semitic and Dravidian. Europe its strongest expression is found in Greece, which was under Semitic influence; but as a phase of other worship, rather than as a special cult, it is native to many savage tribes of America and Asia. Under a corresponding name, lingaworship, phallicism is still practiced by the natives of India. There are two forms of phallicism. The lower, and probably earlier, form is found when the phallos itself is worshiped as divine or is regarded as emblematic of sexual passion alone. Ordinarily, in this form, the phallic emblem is the mark of devotion to some deity of lust, who is not necessarily a male divinity. On the contrary, the female deity is more usual and sometimes older than the male. In the latter case we have reverence paid to the divine mothers, or female forms, of India; to the date-palm, mother-goddess in Arabia, etc.; in the former we find the worship of Dionysus in Greece and Siva in India. In this first form of phallicism there is no notion, or only a very vague notion, of affinity between sexual instinct and the creative power of nature. Among savages the rite in this form is scarcely more than a frankly brutal indulgence of passion; in a civilized community, where excess is frowned upon by a more refined sentiment, the indulgence tends to become secret, as in the Tantric worship of India. This Hindu phallicism, with its conventional admixture of philosophy, represents the conditions which obtained in Greece when orgies were veiled as Orphic mysteries.

In the second form the phallos serves merely as a symbol of that mysterious force which in spring renews vegetable life and awakens to fresh energy all living things, and phallicism thus refined becomes the worship of a great divine uni