on the Gulf of Manfredonia and the Roman Campagna.

HYDROGRAPHY. Italy has many streams, although it has only one great river, the Po. The most important streams, the Po and the Adige, flow into the Adriatic Sea. The Po is fed on one side by the snows of the Alps, on the other by the heavy rains of the Apennines, and drains an area of 27,000 square miles, of which nearly 11,000 are level, and, indeed, almost flat. Its course marks the line at which the sediment and débris from the Alps meet the sediment and débris from the Apennines. The Po is navigable to Turin, and with its tributaries affords about 600 miles of navigation. The Adige enters Italy from Tyrol, and flows eastward to the Adriatic. The beds of both these rivers are constantly being elevated by the boulders and alluvial deposits brought down from the mountains. The rivers of the Peninsula are of little importance for navigation or industry. The beds of most of them are dry in summer, so that they cannot be relied upon for water-power. The most important among them are the Arno, which rises in the Apennines and flows west past Florence and Pisa through a lovely and well-cultivated valley. It has a short course of only 150 miles. The Tiber rises not far from the sources of the Arno, the two rivers being connected by a canal through the tributary called the Chiana, whose waters flow partly into the Arno and partly into the Tiber. The canal system is thoroughly developed in the basin of the Po, and is utilized not only for transportation, but also for the irrigation of hay and rice, so that the farmer in the great plain is almost independent of rain. There are many lakes where the mountains merge into the great plain; also a considerable number in the Peninsula, some of which are crater lakes. The chief lakes of Northern Italy are, in the order of their size, Garda, Maggiore, and Como. Each of them sends down a large tributary to the Po. Lago di Garda covers an area of 140 square miles, and is very deep. Lago Maggiore is longer than Como, but not so large as Garda; a part of this lake is in Switzerland. Lago di Como is one of the loveliest lakes in the world. Other considerable lakes are Lugano and Iseo.

CLIMATE. Italy may be divided into four climatic regions-northern, eastern, western, and southern. The first, coinciding with the valley of the Po, has a warm summer and a large daily range of temperature. The greatest extremes of temperature are in the Po basin; but even here, except in Piedmont. the mean winter temperature does not descend below 35° F. Peninsular Italy is divided climatically into the eastern and western regions. The extremes of temperature diminish toward the south; on the eastern slope of the Apennines the mean annual temperature is about 57°, while the western slope is a trifle warmer. South Italy, Sicily, and Sardinia form the last climatic division, with a mean annual temperature varying from 61° to 64° F., the difference between summer and winter being only 25°. The mean summer temperature at any station in the whole Kingdom does not exceed 80° F., and, except in the elevated valleys of Piedmont, it is nowhere lower than 70°. As in all the Mediterranean countries, the largest rainfall occurs in the fall and winter months, after the growing season, so that irrigation is required in nearly all parts of the Kingdom. The

soils of Italy are excellent, particularly in the Lombard Plain, which is among the richest agricultural lands in the world. Many once fertile parts of the Apennines, however, have been denuded of their soil.

The greatest climatic drawback of Italy is found in the swampy lands of the lower Po, the Maremma, the Campagna, the Pontine marshes, and some other regions where intermittent malarial fevers prevail during the summer months. Only six of the provinces, including Genoa and Florence, are wholly free from malaria. Large sums of money have been spent in attempts to overcome this evil by means of drainage canals and pumping-machines, and recently by draining the breeding-places of the mosquito. The extensive planting of the eucalyptus is believed also to have had a favorable effect upon the salubrity of these malarial regions.

FLORA. The flora of the central and southern lowlands is typical of the Mediterranean countries, with the olive as the most characteristic tree. The great extent of the mountains and highlands, however, causes the myrtle, olive, and other evergreens to be confined to the coasts, especially in North Italy, where the olive is excluded from the plain by the colder winter weather. In the northern plain are maize, wheat, vines, and mulberries. Rice is grown on the irrigated fields near the Po. The flora of the Apennines is very much like that of Central Europe. The shores of the Tyrrhenian Sea present almost a continuous growth of orange, olive, and lemon trees. In the extreme south the vegetation is subtropical; the sugar-cane, the Indian fig, and the date-palm are found. Forests have almost everywhere been destroyed, but the chestnut-tree clothes the sides both of the Alps and the Apennines, the nut in some districts supplying the chief food of the inhabitants.

FAUNA. Italy is very low in the scale of European countries with regard to its fauna. The hear, genet, weasel, and some rodents are almost the only conspicuous examples in the way of mammals. The Alps and Apennines, and the swampy maremme of Rome and Tuscany, afford some refuge for wild life; but otherwise almost everything above an insect is killed for food or wantonly by the people. This has been the rule so long that the country is nearly bare even of small birds. Upon certain great estates a few animals, such as the native fallow deer, are preserved. Were not Italy, by its extension toward the south, a highway of migration to and from Africa for the birds, their absence would be still more complete. The autumn flight of quails from Tunis is a period of feasting. The sea life along the shores of the southern part is wonderfully varied and plentiful.

GEOLOGY. In its geological structure Italy represents a portion of the great system of mountain folds which extend across the Eurasian continent, and which are here diverted from the normal east and west direction to north and south. There is reason for believing that the Peninsula once formed a continuous land bridge across the Mediterranean, thus uniting the ranges of the Alps with the Atlas. The uplifting of the Apennines took place at a comparatively recent geological period; Mesozoic and Tertiary strata including limestones, marls, and sandstones are the predominant formations. The islands off the coast of Tuscany, together with Corsica, Sardinia,

and Northeastern Sicily, represent a much older land mass (Tyrrhenia), which, previous to the Tertiary period, occupied a large part of the depression now filled by the Tyrrhenian Sea. The great crustal movements that have determined the present configuration of Italy were accompanied by volcanic eruptions on an enormous scale. Evidences of these ancient outbursts are found in the Euganean and Brescian hills, near Padua; in the numerous vents along the western coasts of Middle Italy, including Monte Amiata and the Alban Hills; and in the Phlegræan Fields of Campania. On the mainland Vesuvius is the only volcano now active, although eruptions have occurred in the Alban Hills within historical times. Sicily contains the great cone of Mount Etna (q.v.), and the Lipari Islands are dominated by Stromboli-both active volcanoes. MINERAL RESOURCES. Italy has no great mineral wealth. A small quantity of anthracite is mined in Piedmont, and lignite in Umbria, Tuscany, and Sardinia; the total output of coal in 1905 was 412,916 metric tons, valued at $663,000. The most important mineral is sulphur, the output of which constitutes in value more than one-half of all the mineral products. The richest sulphur mines are in the Sicilian provinces of Girgenti, Catania, and Caltanissetta; smaller deposits occur on the mainland, in the provinces of Forlì, Ancona, Avellino, and Pesaro e Urbino. Over 32,000 persons are engaged in extracting this mineral, among them a considerable number of young children working under conditions very injurious to health. Almost the entire world's supplies of sulphur are drawn from the Italian mines. In 1905 the production amounted to: sulphur ore, 3,760,534 metric tons, valued at $8,266,000; raw sulphur, 568,927 tons, valued at $10,269,000; refined sulphur, 180,774 tons, valued at $3,723,000; and powdered sulphur, 180,676 tons, valued at $3,900,000. The island of Elba yields an especially good quality of iron ore, which is largely exported to other countries. In 1905 the output of iron ore was 366,616 tons, valued at $992,000. Rich deposits of zinc ore are worked in Lombardy and Sardinia; the output of this mineral ranks second in value to that of sulphur, the total in 1905 being 147,834 tons, valued at $3,720,000. Quicksilver is mined in Tuscany, copper in Piedmont, Tuscany, and the Venetian Alps, and lead in the provinces of Genoa, Lucca, and in Sardinia. Small quantities of gold, silver, and antimony are also produced. Sicily and Calabria contain deposits of rock salt, while sea-salt is made along the coast of Sicily and Sardinia. The marble-quarries of Carrara, Massa, and Serarezza have a world-wide reputation. The quarries of Italy employed in 1904 over 59,000 men, and their total output, including marble, valued at $3,339,000, was valued at $5,624,000. The petroleum deposits of the Apennines, near Piacenza and other places, have been exploited since about 1893. The output of crude oil in 1906 reached 22,000,000 pounds.

Mineral waters suited for medicinal and bathing purposes are found at numerous localities in the Apennines and the volcanic regions. Among the popular resorts are Abano, Acqui, Bonino, Bagni di Lucca, Ischia, San Giuliano, San Pellegrino, Montecatini, and Posetta.

FISHERIES. The sea and fresh-water fisheries of Italy are considerable, the Mediterranean fur nishing immense quantities of tunny, anchovies,

sardines, mullet, pilchards, and mackerel. The Italian fisheries yielded about $2,600,000 in fish in 1903, but the imports of fish exceed the exports. The number of boats engaged in the industry for the same year was 23,886, which was larger than for any previous year. But while the extent of the fisheries annually increases, the value of the catch tends to diminish. Coral-fishing nets over $400,000 per annum. It is carried on mainly along the coasts of Sicily and Sardinia. Sponges are obtained around Trapani and off the coast of Tunis.

AGRICULTURE. Agriculture is the principal industry of Italy. Only a little over one-sixth of the total area is unproductive, the 70,929,667 acres of Italian territory being classed as follows: 50,119,293 acres, or 71 per cent., under cultivation; 9,326,522 acres, or 13 per cent., not under cultivation, but productive; 11,483,851 acres, or 16 per cent., unproductive land. The most fertile and best cultivated lands are in the northern plain, drained by the Po, in Tuscany, in Campania, and in Northern Sicily, near Palermo. The poorest agricultural sections are in the country east of the Apennine Mountains, the marshy lowlands of Southern Tuscany and Rome, the plains of Apulia, and the hilly interior of Sicily. The extensive swamp areas, and the large, unproductive stretches of arid land which could be turned into fertile gardens and fields with proper irrigation have made it necessary for the Government to undertake large drainage and irrigation works which, when completed, will add millions of acres to the available agricultural area of Italy, and at the same time rid it of great danger to health and life. The work is carried on mostly under the immediate supervision of the Government, which contributes part of the cost of the undertaking, the remain. der being covered by the local government of the districts affected and by the landowners benefited by the change. Before the end of the nineteenth century nearly 1,700,000 acres of land were rendered fit for cultivation by drainage, and over 4,000,000 acres by irrigation. Some 3,500,000 acres of land may be yet reclaimed by irrigation.

CROPS. Wheat is raised over all the Kingdom. Italy is favored above most countries by climatic conditions, and is comparable to California in the great range of crops that can be grown, including both temperate-zone and tropical varieties. Like Florida, its peninsular position gives it the advantage of an insular climate, and though it is in a more northern latitude (Naples being on the same parallel with New York), it is not subject to severe freezes such as sometimes occur in Florida, the Alps to the north protecting it from the southward sweep of cold northern winds. From the agricultural table appended it will be seen that the recent wheat production has fallen somewhat below the average for earlier years. The production does not meet the domestic demand, and annual importations are necessary. Corn is also raised throughout the Kingdom, the two most important districts being the provinces of Milan and Caserta, each producing an average annual crop of about 4,200,000 bushels. The other important provinces are Brescia, Cremona, Udine, Treviso, and Padua. This crop also scarcely holds its own as compared with earlier years, and does not supply the home consumption, necessitating importations. The cultivation of rice, the

The value of the products of the live-stock industry of Italy is estimated at about $285,000,000 per annum.

FORESTRY. About 11,000,000 acres, or 15.72 per cent. of the total area of Italy, are under forests. Of this total area, 1,018,052 acres (1.44 per cent.) are in chestnuts. Only 143,318 acres of forests belong to the Government, but a great part of the forest land is under Government supervision, which is exercised by the Ministry of Agriculture through a staff who are unable, however, to prevent the devastation of forests. Since 1867 the Government has been trying to offset the loss by planting new trees. The total value of the forest products is nearly $17,000,000 per annum.

MANUFACTURES. The manufacturing indus tries of Italy are still in a poor condition. Fac tory production on a large scale has taken root only in a small number of industries, where it is indispensable. The most important branch of manufacture is the production of raw silk, which has been referred to under Agriculture in this article. The industry thrives especially in Piedmont, Lombardy, and Venetia. More than 500,000 people are employed in the raising of silk worms. Silk spinning and weaving is carried on mostly in the north-Lombardy, and especially the Province of Como, being the centre of the industry. It employs altogether more than 185, 000 workers, mostly female. The spinning and weaving of wool and cotton is on the increase, but the production is not sufficiently large to satisfy the home demand. The same is true of the manufacture of linen and jute articles. The iron and steel industry employs about 90,000 people exclusive of those employed in the mines. While it has reached such proportions, no great progress can be recorded in regard to its growth, owing largely to Italy's lack of sufficient mineral deposits.

In the manufacture of small metal ware, and especially of finer articles of bronze, silver, and gold requiring high artistic skill, Italy has long enjoyed a wide reputation, the beautiful work turned out by the workshops of Milan, Venice, Genoa, Rome, and Naples finding ready pur chasers among lovers of art throughout the world. The same may be said of the finer varieties of pottery and glassware, especially the terra-cotta, majolica and faïence, and the mosaic, enamel, and pearl work of Venice, Genoa, Leghorn, Florence, and Rome. The marble and alabaster products are no less famous. Altogether some 90.000 people are employed in the above industries. The chemical industry employs over

the former fluctuates between 37,500,000 and 40,000,000 pounds; that of the latter increased from 267,000 tons in 1871 to 389,000 tons in 1881, 419,000 tons in 1891, and 481,000 tons in 1898. The manufacture of alcohol, beer and liquors, sugar, glucose, chicory, powder and other explosives, mineral oils, matches, gas, and electricity is subject to Government supervision. None of these industries, however, has reached any large proportions. The sugar industry shows more signs of vitality than any other, although but of recent date in Italy. In 1898 there were only four sugar refineries, with an annual output of 8000 tons; in 1905 their number increased to 33, and the output to 95,000 tons.

TRANSPORTATION. In 1906 Italy had a railway system with a total length of 10.076 miles. The mileage is the smallest of any leading country in Europe, and is less per square mile of area than is common in Western European countries. As a result of the peninsular position of Italy, the traffic of its railroads is mainly local, which has not justified the construction of a large mileage, and is partly responsible for the financial difficulties which have overtaken the operation of the system, as below described. The Apennines, extending through the length of Italy, divide the railway system into two distinct groups, called the Mediterranean and Adriatic, respectively. Each of these, as well as the respective lines of Sicily and Sardinia, was operated under the law of 1885 by separate companies until July, 1905, when the Government resumed the management of the State lines. The first railway in Italy was built in 1839, to connect the city of Naples with Portici, a distance of five miles. In 1860 there were 1118 miles, about one-fifth of which belonged to the State, the remainder being owned by seven railway companies. In 1869 the State undertook the construction of new railways, and by 1870 owned nearly two-thirds of the total, 3962 miles. By 1879 the mileage had increased to 5228 miles, and as the growth of the system did not keep up with the needs of the country, there was a popular clamor for a more rapid construction of railways by the Government. In 1879 a law was enacted with a view to meeting this demand, providing for the construction of upward of 3728 miles, at an expense of about $240,000,000. As the Government found insuperable financial difficulties in trying to carry out this provision, it was compelled to give up the undertaking in a few years.

In 1885 an agreement was reached with three private railway companies, whereby the latter were to take over the three principal lines of