Rivers and their feeders, while in Shikoku flat lands lie along the Yoshino River and in Kiushiu along the Chikugo. In Formosa a plain 20 miles wide, expanding toward the south, lies between the mountains and the western coast. The general trend of the mountain systems is along the longer extension of the islands-that is, from southwest to northeast, or from southsouthwest to north-northeast-but in several places the main chains are intersected by other lofty ridges, running in a general way from north to south, as in Kiushiu, Central Hondo, and Yezo. It is at these points that the greatest mountain masses and the most imposing scenery are found. In Formosa, also, the great backbone of the island extends from north to south, several of its peaks exceeding in height those of Japan proper. Beginning with the volcanic elevations of the Kurile group, which form a line of 32 stepping-stones from Kamtchatka to the island of Yezo, a range of trachytic and basaltic rocks is intersected near the centre of Yezo by a loftier and more massive chain composed of granite and old schists, from Cape Soya on the north (a continuation of the Saghalin system), the highest peak of which is the Tokachi, with an elevation of 8200 feet. Farther on toward the southwest this volcanic Kurilian range merges into the west coast range from Cape Soya, and is marked by some remarkable volcanoes, the most noted though not the highest of which is Komagatake, or 'Foal Mountain' (a name of common occurrence in Japan), with a height of nearly 4000 feet. Branching into two lines after the long western arm of the island rounds Volcano Bay, these mountains reappear on the main island in two parallel chains. One, the Northern Schist range, separates the Valley of the Kitagami River from the Pacific; the other, the main chain, continues toward the southwest, forms the backbone of the island until it meets the great complex of massive intersecting ridges which inclose the plateau of Shinano (2550 feet above the sea), and occupies the central portion of the main island where it is widest. It sends out important branches and continuations south east through the Hakone range into Idzu: southwest through Yamato and Shikoku to Kiushiu; and westerly through the centre of Chiugoku to Shimonoseki, forming in its course the dividing line between the group of provinces known as San-yodo and that called San-in-do.

In this central mountain mass, which covers the provinces of Kaga, Etchiu, Hida, Shinshiu, Koshiu, and part of Kodzuke are found the loftiest peaks of Japan proper (next after Fujiyama 'the Peerless,' with its elevation of 12,365 feet, which soars near the southeast coast, not very far from Tokio). They also offer the grandest scenery, and hence are frequently called the 'Japanese Alps.' The principal summits are: Haku-san in Kaga, an extinct volcano, with a height of 8920 feet; Yariga-take.10.000 feet, in Hida; Gohonsha, the highest peak of the Tate-yama range, 9500 feet; Ko-ma-ga-take, 10.384 feet; and scores of others. Farther north in the Nikko range of Shimotsuke is Shirane-san, 8580 feet; Nantai-san, 8150 feet; and farther north still, on the shores of Lake Inawashiro, is Bandai-san, 6280 feet. Thence northward are Gwassan, 6200 feet; Gan-ju-san, or the Nambu-Fuji, 6500 feet; and southward along the west coast from Iwaki-san or Tsugaru-Fuji (4500 feet), are Cho-kai-san, 7800 feet, Haguro-san, and

others, each as a rule sacred to some deity and consequently much visited by pilgrims. Snow covers most of them in winter, but, except in a few cases, as, for example, Haku-san and the peaks of the great mountain masses of Shinano and Hida, it disappears before the end of summer. Even on Fujiyama only patches of snow remain from year to year. The toge or passes by which these mountains are crossed are comparatively low, due to the fact, as Rein points out, that (1) the mountain masses of primitive crystalline rocks and schists do not rise very high, and that (2) the volcanic formations, which have in so many places burst through and overlain them, seldom form long or very high ridges.

It is said that there are in Japan, which is of volcanic origin, 170 volcanoes, most of them, however, regarded as extinct, some merely quiescent, but scores still active, sending forth smoke and steam, or serving as landmarks at night by their fiery glow. Among the more famous volcanoes still reckoned as active are Asama-yama, in Shinano: Komaga-take and several others, in Yezo; Chacha-take, in one of the Kuriles; Shirane-yama, in the Nikko range; Mihara-yama, on Oshima or 'Vries Island,' one of the 'Seven Islands,' lying off the promontory of Idzu; and Suwa-shima, in Loo-choo. As late as 1888 Bandai-san (q.v.) was in a state of violent eruption. Earthquakes are of frequent occurrence, and even in comparatively recent times some have been very disastrous. The line of greatest seismic disturbance extends from Loochoo through Kiushiu to the northeast. On October 28, 1891, occurred an earthquake, felt in six provinces; 7279 persons lost their lives, 17,393 were injured, and 197,947 buildings were utterly destroyed.

Thermal springs and solfataras are exceedingly numerous. In Japan proper, the former, chiefly sulphur, are said to occur in 388 different localities, and almost all are much patronized by the natives. The chief are Kusatsu and Ikao, in Kodzuke; Yumoto, at the foot of Shirane-yama, in the Nikko range; and Enoyu on Kirishima-yama, in Kiushiu. Chalybeate springs, both hot and cold, are also found. The solfataras are well exemplified by the Ojigoku and Ko-jigoku, or 'Great and Little Hells,' of the Hakone range.

The

HYDROGRAPHY. Owing to the mountainous character of the country, and the narrowness of the islands, Japan cannot boast of long rivers, no part being farther distant from the sea than about 100 miles. Yet the country is well watered. Every valley has its stream or its streamlet, and one of the chief charms of the scenery is the rush of the numerous waters, and the beauty of its waterfalls, while the swiftness and torrential character of many of the streams present grave problems to the engineer engaged in railway construction or bridge-building. largest river in the Empire is the Ishikari, in Yezo, which flows into the Sea of Japan, after a course of 407 miles. On the main island, the three great kawa, or rivers, are the Shinanogawa, the Tonegawa, and the Kisogawa. The Shinano rises in the province of that name, has a course of 320 miles, and flows northwest into the Sea of Japan. The Kitagami, in the northeast, has a course of 122 miles, and flows southeast into the Bay of Sendai. The Tonegawa rises in Kodzuke, traverses the plain of Kwanto, and enters the Pacific near Tokio, after a course