CORPORAL PUNISHMENT. No principle of school government is now more constantly impressed upon teachers than that frequent whippings indicate a poor disciplinarian. Only the older men and women of this generation can realize what a change from the past this represents. In one entire State, New Jersey, the teacher is forbidden by law to inflict corporal punishment. No other State goes to this length, but Illinois, Kansas, Mississippi, Montana, Pennsylvania, South Dakota, Washington, and West Virginia specifically prescribe a penalty for excess amounting to cruelty. Legal punishment would be meted out to a brutal teacher in the other States just as surely as in these, but resort would be had to the common law and not to a statute. Only in Arizona is there formal statutory authority for corporal punishment; but whipping has been the common mode of discipline in school from time immemorial; custom legalizes it, and unless forbidden in express terms the teacher does not need the authority of a special permissive law. Judicial decisions to this effect have been made in Alabama, Arkansas, Connecticut, Indiana, Iowa, Maine, Minnesota, North Carolina, Pennsylvania, Wisconsin, and probably in other States. Local school boards have always the implied power to make regulations for the order and discipline of their respective schools, and three States, viz, Michigan, New York, and Pennsylvania, expressly grant them this power. Acting under this power, expressed or implied, several cities, notably, New York City, Chicago, and Albany, have prohibited absolutely the use of the rod. The same is true of Providence, R. I., except in the primary grades, and in them whipping must not be inflicted unless the written consent of the parent or guardian has been previously filed with the city superintendent. Corporal punishment may be used as a last resort and under rigid regulations as to reports, etc., in a great many cities, among them being Baltimore, Detroit, Indianapolis, Louisville, Minneapolis, New Orleans, Pittsburg, Rochester, St. Louis, San Francisco, and Worcester. In some cities where there is no formal prohibition, such a strong sentiment has grown up against corporal punishment that it is rarely or never inflicted. Philadelphia is a conspicuous example of this. SALARIES OF TEACHERS. The expenditure for salaries in the public schools, teachers and superintendents both included, was $116,377,778 in 1896, or 63.1 per cent of the total expenditure for school purposes. Official reports present average salaries, or the data for their estimate, but these averages, although possessing a certain value, tend in a measure to obscure the facts. Few superintendents distinguish between urban and rural salaries, hence the averages, low as they may seem, impart an exaggerated idea of the latter and at the same time effectually conceal the advantages of the former. Only oneseventh of the teachers are in city schools, but cities pay about 36 per cent of the amount expended for teaching. The relative value of a low salary may, indeed, be greater than that of a higher. Many conditions must be weighed before any just comparisons can be established in this respect, either between States or between different nations. The complaint is general, both in the United States and in European countries, that salaries are too low. So far as averages show it, the present condition in the United States is as follows: For the entire country the average monthly salary of men teachers is $47.37; of women $40.24. The several geographical sections differ considerably in this respect, and the difference is emphasized when the individual States are considered. The highest average for men is in the North Atlantic section, $61.87, and here also is the greatest difference between the average for men and the average for women, i. e., $16.37. The explanation is to be found in the concentrated population which supports large graded schools and numerous high schools. The consolidation of rural schools, involving the transportation of pupils at public expense to a central place, tends to the same result. Wherever employed it has raised salaries without increasing the total cost of the schools. The lowest average salaries and the least variance between the averages for men and women are found in the South Atlantic section. The averages are for men $33.15 and for women $30.66. The length of the school year must be considered in determining the annual salary. This period averages for the whole country 140.5 days, or about 7 months of 20 days each, and ranges from 93 days in the South Central Division to 175.5 days in the North Atlantic. As to the movement of salaries it is, apparently, upward, but ED 97-97 this is to be inferred rather from general statements than from any exact data attainable. It is evident that the relative increase or decrease in the average salaries of men and women from year to year signifies nothing, unless the estimates be based upon the same positions for the period considered. If a man resigns from a position a woman may be promoted at a lower salary. Interchanges like this are constantly taking place with the apparent effect of increasing the average salary for men and diminishing that for women, or vice versa, when in fact no individual salary is affected. The kind of data necessary for a comparative estimate of the changing rates for men and women is illustrated in the Commissioner's Report for 1889-90 (Vol. 2, chap. 2). This is probably the first attempt at a systematic investigation of this particular and constitutes thus an original contribution to sociological science. It is scarcely possible with the present data at hand to attempt any comparison between the average salaries of teachers in our own and other countries; but, keeping in mind the absence of a fixed or uniform standard of relation, it may be interesting to note that the average annual salary for men in the United States, counting seven months to the school year, is $331.50 and for women $281.68. The average annual salary for teachers in the Prussian elementary schools was estimated at $340 in 1887, including free residence. Dr. Schlee, of Altoona, observes that "in making a comparison it must be remembered that the advantage of permanency connected with positions in Germany does not exist in America. There are no pensions and stipends after death. Salaries are wages calculated and paid by the month, consisting of four school weeks; vacation months are not included. Salaries do not continue during interruption of duties by leave of absence or sickness. In France the Government guarantees a minimum salary to every teacher. The teachers are graded in five classes and the minimum annual salary ranges from $200 to $400 for men and from $200 to $320 for women. In addition every teacher must be provided with a house or with a money equivalent for the same. The policy of an assured minimum salary is advocated to some extent in the United States; in New York a bill to this effect has been carried through the legislature and awaits the governor's signature. TEXT-BOOKS-SELECTION AND SUPPLY. In a few States text-books do not form a specific subject of legislation, but local boards have control, under the general charge of the welfare of the schools. In most States legislation regulates the selection of text-books. In some States a guaranty is required required from publishers to supply books, according to samples, at w wholesale, retail, introduction, exchange, mail prices, part or all, for a term of years. In fewer States the school boards buy and sell the books on public account. In certain States boards continue to own the books used free by pupils. Indigent pupils are more frequently supplied at public expense. In most States special or general laws give cities the control of the details of their school administration, including text-books. Specific penalties are expressed in certain cases for using other than prescribed books, but in general such use would be only a violation of law to be dealt with as it occurred. Free text-books are furnished in Delaware, District of Columbia, Idaho, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, Nebraska, New Hampshire, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, and Vermont. State superintendent is here used to indicate the chief officer of the State schools. In the States immediately following, individuals, except indigents, buy their books. Arizona. The lists are fixed for four years by territorial board. Arkansas. The list is fixed for three years, with exception by local board, from books recommended by State superintendent. California. The State prepares, publishes, and sells books for primary and grammar schools, but high schools supported wholly by local effort are almost free of the law. Penalty for using other than the State list, forfeiture of apportionment from State funds. Indigent pupils are furnished free. Georgia. County board fixes list. Penalty, teacher can not receive pay from pupils using other books. Indiana.-A State board selects books under publishers' guaranty. County boards may fix a list of additional books for high schools for six years. Books are bought and sold by or subject to arrangement of local board, and become private property. Districts supply indigents. Illinois. District board fixes list for four years. Indigents supplied free. Kentucky. County board of examiners fixes list for five years with publishers' guaranty. The county judge furnishes indigents. Louisiana.-State board fixes list for four years with limited local discretion. Mississippi. The county school board adopts a series of books for five years on publishers' guaranty. Penalty pupils without the prescribed books in any branch are not to receive instruction in that branch. Missouri.-A State schoolbook commission fixed a list, with publishers guaranty, for five years from September 1, 1897, to be handled through dealers. Indigents are supplied from local contingent funds. Montana. Local boards prescribe studies additional to those in State law, and furnish indigents. Nevada.-State board fixes list for four years. District furnishes indigents. New Mexico. - Territorial board of education is authorized to fix a list for four years, and to contract with publishers and sell to counties. Districts furnish indigents. North Carolina.-County board fixes list for three years, with publishers' guaranty. Ohio. A State commission fixes a list, on publishers' guaranty, from which local boards fix lists for five years (with exception). Boards may buy and sell to pupils or arrange with dealers to supply them. Indigents are furnished. Oklahoma.-Territorial superintendent fixes a list for five years on publishers' guaranty. Oregon.-State board fixes a list for six years on publishers' guaranty. Penalty, forfeiture of apportionment. South Carolina. -State board fixes a list for five years on publishers' guaranty, and may require publishers to have depositories in each county. Tennessee.-County superintendent suggests suitable books. Texas. A law resembling that of Missouri is to take effect September 1, 1898. Penalty upon any teacher or trustee, $10 to $50 for each offense. Every day of violation of law to be considered a separate offense. Utah. A convention of superintendents fixes a list for five years on publishers' guaranty. Penalty on teacher, forfeiture of eligibility. Virginia.-Two books of John Esten Cooke (Virginia, a History of her People; and Stories of the Old Dominion) are prescribed by law. State board fixes a list. Washington.-State board fixes a list for five years on publishers' guaranty. Penalty on district, loss of one-fourth of the apportionment. Local boards furnish indigents. West Virginia. -A contract list for five years is part of the law of 1896, with exceptions. County schoolbook boards are established by act of 1897. Publishers keep books with local depositories on account of district building fund. Penalty on every officer or teacher, $3 to $10 for each offense. Wyoming. Same as Utah, except penalty. The States following, regularly or through stated action, authorize provision for free use of books by pupils: Colorado. District boards fix list for four years, with exceptions. Indigentsare furnished, and, on popular vote, all pupils, free. Connecticut.-State board may fix list for five years. Town boards may take additional action and, on popular vote, furnish free text-books. Delaware.-State board fixes list; district board furnishes free text-books. Idaho.-Books adopted by a State board of text-book commissioners for all common, graded, and high schools, are furnished free by the district under contracts with publishers for six years, ending September 1, 1899. Iowa. Local boards may buy and sell to pupils at cost. County uniformity can be fixed for five years. Text-books are furnished free to indigents, and, on popular vote, to all by the district. Kansas. A school text-book commission (1897) has selected text-books in common school studies for five years, and contracted with publishers to furnish them to pupils through agencies at every county seat. On popular vote, with a twothirds majority, school boards may purchase books and furnish their use free to pupils. Penalty for using other text-books, except for reference, $25 to $100, with or without imprisonment. Maine, New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Rhode Island (towns); New Jersey, Pennsylvania (local boards); and Maryland (counties), furnish free text-books. Michigan. District boards furnish books to indigents, and, on popular vote, to all pupils free. Minnesota.-Local boards may fix a list for three to five years with publishers' guaranty, and may purchase and provide for loan free or for sale at cost to pupils. Nebraska. Local boards furnish books free, and may fix list, with publishers' guaranty, not beyond five years. A local dealer may be designated to handle the books on agreed terms. * * * New York. Every union free-school board is “to prescribe the text-books and to furnish the same out of any money provided for the purpose." Commonschool districts, by popular vote, may furnish indigent pupils. North Dakota. -Local boards may furnish free text-books, and must on popular vote. South Dakota. A county board of education is required to adopt a uniform series for five years, to be furnished through designated depositories under publishers' guaranty. On petition of a majority of electors a school corporation must arrange for free text-books. Vermont. County authority fixes a list for five years on publishers' guaranty. On popular vote local boards furnish free text-books. Wisconsin.-District board fixes list for three years. Penalty, on every member of the board, $50. On popular vote books are furnished free without time limitation as to change. THE LOCAL UNIT OF SCHOOL ORGANIZATION. The State exercises remote authority over all public schools in its borders; the county, in most States, has a closer supervision of all schools in its limits, but has very little to do with schools in New England. In certain States it becomes the unit for the entire local administration of public schools. The town or township takes more or less of the local functions in other States, and the district becomes a local unit for variable functions in yet others. In 35 counties of Texas is a community system. The summarized statement below shows the principal agency through which local support and control of schools is exercised, special laws excepted, under which cities, towns, and independent districts exist. Counties generally receive, hold, and disburse moneys for townships and districts formed by subdivision of counties; towns or townships generally hold the same relation to districts formed by division of town or townships; in a few States districts have their own tax collectors and treasurers. County. Alabama is all either town or township. Florida, with provision for districts of united power; Georgia, Louisiana, recognizing Congressional townships in accounts of 16th-section land funds; Maryland, Mississippi, with provision for separate districts; North Carolina, with districts capable of holding real estate; Tennessee, with some local functions in districts, and only supervisory powers in subdistricts; Utah, with provision for division. Town or township. -Alabama, the Congressional township for administrative convenience, its officers appointed and its accounts kept by county officers; Connecticut, the town may abolish districts; Illinois, township based on Congressional township, or district optional; Indiana, New Jersey, Ohio, and Pennsylvania, each township, incorporated town or city (or borough in Pennsylvania), district corporation for school purposes; Iowa, township based on Congressional township with subdistricts for supervisory convenience and independent districts, both in use; Maine, Massachusetts, Minnesota, township may be a district as a part of a county; New Hampshire, New York, recognized for certain land funds, but districts, generally; North Dakota, based on Congressional township; Rhode Island, may create or abolish districts; South Dakota, based on Congressional township; Vermont, Wisconsin, optional in formation of districts. District.-Arkansas, Arizona, California, Colorado, Connecticut, where not abolished by the town; Delaware, Florida, Idaho, Illinois, optional with townships; Iowa, independent districts as well as townships; Kansas, Minnesota, Missouri, districts may be less than townships; Kentucky, Michigan, Mississippi, optional; Montana, Nebraska, Nevada, each village, town, or city is a district: New Mexico, New York, commissioners' district, a county or part of a county, has supervisory authority, school districts are parts of commissioners' districts, towns recognized for certain land funds; North Carolina, Oklahoma, Oregon, South Carolina, Tennessee, with limited powers, as stated under county; Texas, but cities may acquire exclusive control over their schools, towns and villages may be incorporated for school purposes only; in 35 community counties families associate from year to year to support schools and draw their share of public money; Utah, permissible as stated under county: Virginia, West Virginia, corresponding geographically to magisterial districts; Washington, each city or town (incorporated); Wisconsin, optional (see town or township); Wyoming. CHAPTER XXXIV. THE GROWTH OF TORONTO CHILDREN. By FRANZ BOAS. INTRODUCTION. In 1891, when active preparations for the World's Columbian Exposition were being made, Prof. F. W. Putnam, curator of the Peabody Museum of American Archæology and Ethnography, and chief of the Department of Anthropology of the Exposition, placed me in charge of the section of Physical Anthropology. At an early time during the preparation of the exhibits we agreed upon a plan to represent as fully as possible the growth and the development of American children. Valuable material was available, but it seemed desirable to extend the investigations over regions in which heretofore no observations had been collected. I submitted our plans to Mr. James Hughes, superintendent of public schools in Toronto, Ontario, and to Prof. Earl Barnes, of Leland Stanford Junior University. Through the interest taken by these gentlemen I have been enabled to obtain series of measurements of the school children of Toronto and of Oakland, Cal. The former series was taken under the supervision of Dr. Alexander F. Chamberlain, the latter under the direction of Prof. Earl Barnes. In both of these series the same plan, excepting details, was followed. In the following pages I intend to present some of the results of our investigations upon the children of Toronto, together with a few general statements which the treatment of the material and a study of the questions involved suggest. Since in previous investigations the influence of sex, of occupation of parents, and of descent had been studied, it seemed desirable to investigate the influence of other causes. I selected for this purpose the influence of the order of birth, i. e., the question whether first-born children have a development different from that of later-born children. The blank on which the observations were recorded was drawn up so as to cover not only this point, but also the influence of nationality and occupation of the parents-facts which it was necessary to note in order to determine their influence on the questions to be investigated. Blue blanks were used for females, white blanks for males. Here is a copy of both sides of the blank: [Front.] FEMALE. Record all linear measurements at nearest centimeter; all weights at nearest pound. Hair: Black, brown, red, golden, fair, gray. (If gray, record also the original color, if. possible.) Eyes: Black, brown. Hazel, gray, blue. Ability: The following measurements to be taken by special observers only. Length of head. Breadth of head. Breadth of face. Height of face A. |