FOREIGNERS IN UNIVERSITIES OF CENTRAL EUROPE.

The numbers given in the following summary are the latest available; they are for the scholastic year 1894-95.

A glance at the totals shows that the number of foreigners studying in Germany is not inconsiderable. It must be borne in mind, however, that the numbers given represent only those of matriculated students, for those are the only ones who can be considered in official reports. The number of those who visit German institutions as hearers for some length of time, and without being matriculated, attend clinics, work in laboratories, and listen to private lectures, is very large, but can not be stated with accuracy. It is estimated that that number exceeds those of matriculated foreigners. In the summer of 1895 the universities and other institutions of learning in Germany had upon their rolls the names of 3,362 foreigners. That is, in comparison to the total number of matriculated students, equal to 8.48 per cent. Of these 3,362 foreigners the universities proper had 2,015 (7 per cent), the polytechnica 1,041 (13.1 per cent), the veterinary schools 15 (1.53 per cent), the agricultural academies 101 (9.37 per cent), the forestry academies 58 (18.6 per cent), and the mining academies 132 (32.4 per cent). Of the 3,362 foreigners there were 966 Russians, 514 Americans, 467 Austrians and Hungarians, 316 Swiss, 180 Englishmen, 158 Hollanders, 142 Bulgarians, 116 Swedes and Norwegians, 82 Roumanians, 69 Italians, 57 Asiatics, 53 Frenchmen, 37 Servians, 36 Belgians, 36 Turks, 27 Greeks, 26 Danes, 22 Africans, 14 Australians, 8 Spaniards, 4 Portuguese, and 2 Montenegrins.

In the Austrian universities and other institutions there were matriculated 1,106 foreigners in the summer of 1895 among a total of 18,031 students, or 6.14 per cent. Of these 1,106 foreigners there were 987 (6.58 per cent) students of universities, the polytechnica had 84 (3.1 per cent), the mining academies 16 (7 per cent), and the agricultural academy in Vienna had 19 (7.66 per cent). The 1,106 foreigners consisted of 239 Germans, 236 Russians, 115 Servians, 111 Italians, 106 Americans, 76 Roumanians, 71 Bulgarians, 33 Turks, 31 Englishmen, 25 Swiss, 11 Greeks, 10 Frenchmen, 9 Hollanders, 9 Swedes and Norwegians, 8 Africans, 6 Belgians, 6 Asiatics, 3 Spaniards, and 1 Montenegrin.

The Swiss higher seats of learning matriculated no less than 1,667 foreigners among a total of 3,908 students. The percentage of foreigners here was 42.6. The universities alone enrolled 1,341, or 42.2 per cent, and the polytechnical school in Zürich 326, or 43 per cent, of a total number of the matriculated students. Of the 1,667 foreigners Germany had sent 549, Russia 399, Austria-Hungary 143, Bulgaria 137, Roumania 86, Italy 68, America 65, France 63, Asia 26, Holland 25, Turkey 22, England 20, Greece 19, Servia 17, Sweden and Norway 15, Denmark 5, Belgium 3, Portugal 2, Africa 2, Spain 1.

From these summaries it is seen that as far as attendance of foreigners is concerned, Switzerland ranks first with 42.6 per cent of the total number; then follows Germany, with 8.48 per cent, and lastly Austria, with 6.14 per cent. This does not, as has been said before, include the so-called free lances who attend these higher seats of learning only for a time and who, being without proper preparation, can not matriculate, hence can not be counted as students by the officers of the institutions. They have, as a matter of self-evidence, most of the privileges of the students by becoming the private students of renowned professors, and have access to the libraries, laboratories, experimental stations, and other accessories which are open to those who can pay the fees. In Germany it is the mining academies which are, comparatively, attended most frequently by foreigners (32.4 per cent), and the veterinary schools are attended least by foreigners (1.53 per cent). The proportion of foreigners in German universities has risen from 5.16 per cent in the year 1880 to 8.48 per cent in 1895. In Austria the school of agriculture in Vienna has the greatest proportion of foreigners, namely, 7.66 per cent, while the polytechnica have only 3.1 per cent. In Switzerland universities and the polytechnical school are attended by foreigners at about an equal ratio.

In France efforts are being made to invite foreign students, especially from America, to attend 'the higher institutions of learning of that country. Admission to these institutions has been made easier and the academic degrees which formerly were only given to French students have been made accessible. A communication of the United States ambassador to France, Gen. Horace Porter, to the State Department, dated January 11, 1898, in answer to an inquiry in regard to the admission of a student from the United States into the School of Mines, contains statements which are applicable to other higher seats of learning also. He says: "No foreign student can enter any of the schools of France-medicine, pharmacy, dentistry, veterinary, painting, design, architecture, music, declamation, engineering, etc.-without the formal application of the diplomatic representative of this country. In most cases two letters suffice, one making application, the

other expressing thanks when the request is granted. Sometimes more correspondence is necessary, for the reason that those proposing to enter any of the highgrade schools have to produce certain certificates of studies or diplomas, which the authorities accept only when they come through the embassy. These rules, says General Porter, apply to all foreign students. No discrimination is made against Americans; on the contrary, the authorities extend all possible facilities to them. There is a large number of American students in Paris, and, as a rule, they are much liked by the teachers in French institutions.

"As for the School of Mines," he continues, foreigners can be admitted there either as foreign pupils, in which case they have to stand an examination, or as free auditors, in which case there is no examination. The courses, however, are not all open to that class of students, and no diploma is granted them. In both cases they have to pay 50 francs ($9.65) for matriculation. If the school is full, as occasionally happens, the application for admission is put off until the next year."

THE CONVEYANCE OF CHILDREN TO SCHOOL.

The practice of discontinuing weak schools and of conveying the pupils at the public expense to stronger central schools continues to give favorable results and promise of further extension in the near future.

The development of the electric trolley-car system, the bicycle, and the movement in favor of good roads are all working in the direction of furnishing suitable graded-school advantages to the children in the rural districts.

"The money saved in a small town by reducing the number of teachers is often large enough to furnish better school accommodations to the children, better wages to better teachers for them, such transportation as consolidation requires, and longer schooling." State Superintendent Hill, of Massachusetts, presents thus briefly the economical advantages of conveyance.1

The following States have made legal provision for transporting children to school at the public expense: Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Iowa, and Nebraska.

The State superintendents of Rhode Island and Wisconsin have declared that the existing provisions of the school laws of their respective States are sufficient to authorize the conveyance of pupils at the public expense. Certain counties of Ohio are authorized by special laws to establish central schools and convey pupils to and from them, and excellent results have followed the adoption of this policy.

Some progress has also been made in this direction in Pennsylvania and South Dakota, and perhaps in other States, where there already exists, as in Pennsylvania, "law enough to cover the case."

For discussions of this subject, statements of advantages and disadvantages, results of experience, etc., see Reports of this office for 1894-95, Volume 2, pages 1469-1482; 1895-96, Volume 2, pages 1353-1358.

Amount expended in Massachusetts for transporting children to school for the past nine years.

HIGHER COMMERCIAL EDUCATION.

The immense progress the natural sciences, technology, and transportation have made in recent years has given to the commercial profession an importance which could not be foreseen in former years. More than ever before has it become the merchant's duty to act as middleman between producer and consumer. In ever widening circles he has to bring the products of agriculture and industry to their proper markets. By means of increased taxation to which commercial enterprises are subject they support ever more strongly the State in the discharge of its civilizing efforts. Direct exchange between producer and consumer has almost

1 Mass. Sch. Rep. 1896-97, p. 123.

wholly ceased, and the percentage of the population devoted to commercial pursuits has increased considerably in every civilized country.

It seems worthy of mention that at present the Governments everywhere in Europe are urged strongly by commercial men to establish more higher commercial schools and support them exclusively from State funds. It is argued that the State provides higher technological, industrial, agricultural, forestry, and mining academies for leaders in technical pursuits, agriculture, etc., while for the mercantile branch no State institution exists. The merchants feel that the education of their assistants is not of such a high order as that of the members of other callings, and they attribute it to the want of institutions of a high order. At present the commercial branch is entirely dependent for the best preparation of its members upon higher schools established by local authority or private enterprise-institutions which charge high tuition fees, hence are attended by wealthy young men only. This opinion has found expression in legislatures and parlia ments, where it was urged that much greater demands are made now than formerly, owing to freer commercial movement all over the civilized world, and it would therefore seem wise if the State authorities paid more attention to proper preparation of men who might become leaders in commerce, as the State prepares leaders in every other field of human exertion.

Moved by these considerations, several European Governments have of late years bestowed much attention upon commercial training of young men, and the results thus far obtained give assurance that the further development of schools for that purpose will be commensurate with the demands of the times.

In Germany particularly the commercial secondary schools have developed with the aid of provincial and State support, till at last a university has opened its doors for higher commerclal education. On February 22, 1898, the University of Leipzig received an addition to its various courses in the shape of a higher commercial course. The particulars may be found on page 1498 of this report. In connection with this it may be remarked that the cities of Magdeburg and Cologne are making earnest efforts to establish independent commercial universities. In Italy the State subsidizes the higher commercial school at Venice, reserving the privilege of having its consuls and consular agents prepared at that school. In Belgium the Government chooses its consuls from the graduates of the higher commercial school at Antwerp.

GRADUATE WORK AT UNIVERSITIES AND COLLEGES.

The number of students who remain at college pursuing advanced studies after having completed undergraduate courses leading to a bachelor's degree is constantly increasing. In the year 1876-77 the number of such students was 389; in 1886-87 the number was 1,237, while in 1896-97 there were reported 4,919 graduate students in attendance at the various institutions of the country, 1,413 of whom

were women.

These numbers do not include the students who remain at college for the purpose of pursuing professional studies in law, medicine, theology, etc. The Handbook of Graduate Courses, published by the Federation of Graduate Clubs, shows the popularity of the various studies among graduate students. It shows that of 3,204 students in attendance at 24 of the leading institutions of the country 35.4 per cent were pursuing language and literature studies, 20.6 per cent historical and social sciences, 18 per cent philosophical studies, 14.2 per cent natural sciences, and 11.1 per cent mathematical sciences.

The following table shows the number of resident graduate students in the universities and colleges of the United States each year for 25 years:

CORPORAL PUNISHMENT.

No principle of school government is now more constantly impressed upon teachers than that frequent whippings indicate a poor disciplinarian. Only the older men and women of this generation can realize what a change from the past this represents.

In one entire State, New Jersey, the teacher is forbidden by law to inflict corporal punishment. No other State goes to this length, but Illinois, Kansas, Mississippi, Montana, Pennsylvania, South Dakota, Washington, and West Virginia specifically prescribe a penalty for excess amounting to cruelty. Legal punishment would be meted out to a brutal teacher in the other States just as surely as in these, but resort would be had to the common law and not to a statute. Only in Arizona is there formal statutory authority for corporal punishment; but whipping has been the common mode of discipline in school from time immemorial; custom legalizes it, and unless forbidden in express terms the teacher does not need the authority of a special permissive law. Judicial decisions to this effect have been made in Alabama, Arkansas, Connecticut, Indiana, Iowa, Maine, Minnesota, North Carolina, Pennsylvania, Wisconsin, and probably in other States. Local school boards have always the implied power to make regulations for the order and discipline of their respective schools, and three States, viz, Michigan, New York, and Pennsylvania, expressly grant them this power. Acting under this power, expressed or implied, several cities, notably, New York City, Chicago, and Albany, have prohibited absolutely the use of the rod. The same is true of Providence, R. I., except in the primary grades, and in them whipping must not be inflicted unless the written consent of the parent or guardian has been previously filed with the city superintendent.

Corporal punishment may be used as a last resort and under rigid regulations as to reports, etc., in a great many cities, among them being Baltimore, Detroit, Indianapolis, Louisville, Minneapolis, New Orleans, Pittsburg, Rochester, St. Louis, San Francisco, and Worcester. In some cities where there is no formal prohibition, such a strong sentiment has grown up against corporal punishment that it is rarely or never inflicted. Philadelphia is a conspicuous example of this.

SALARIES OF TEACHERS.

The expenditure for salaries in the public schools, teachers and superintendents both included, was $116,377,778 in 1896, or 63.1 per cent of the total expenditure for school purposes.

Official reports present average salaries, or the data for their estimate, but these averages, although possessing a certain value, tend in a measure to obscure the facts. Few superintendents distinguish between urban and rural salaries, hence the averages, low as they may seem, impart an exaggerated idea of the latter and at the same time effectually conceal the advantages of the former. Only oneseventh of the teachers are in city schools, but cities pay about 36 per cent of the amount expended for teaching. The relative value of a low salary may, indeed, be greater than that of a higher. Many conditions must be weighed before any just comparisons can be established in this respect, either between States or between different nations. The complaint is general, both in the United States and in European countries, that salaries are too low. So far as averages show it, the present condition in the United States is as follows: For the entire country the average monthly salary of men teachers is $47.37; of women $40.24. several geographical sections differ considerably in this respect, and the difference is emphasized when the individual States are considered. The highest average for men is in the North Atlantic section, $61.87, and here also is the greatest difference between the average for men and the average for women, i. e., $16.37. The explanation is to be found in the concentrated population which supports large graded schools and numerous high schools. The consolidation of rural schools, involving the transportation of pupils at public expense to a central place, tends to the same result. Wherever employed it has raised salaries without increasing the total cost of the schools. The lowest average salaries and the least variance between the averages for men and women are found in the South Atlantic section. The averages are for men $33.15 and for women $30.66.

The

The length of the school year must be considered in determining the annual salary. This period averages for the whole country 140.5 days, or about 7 months of 20 days each, and ranges from 93 days in the South Central Division to 175.5 days in the North Atlantic. As to the movement of salaries it is, apparently, upward, but

ED 97-97

this is to be inferred rather from general statements than from any exact data attainable.

It is evident that the relative increase or decrease in the average salaries of men and women from year to year signifies nothing, unless the estimates be based upon the same positions for the period considered. If a man resigns from a position a woman may be promoted at a lower salary. Interchanges like this are constantly taking place with the apparent effect of increasing the average salary for men and diminishing that for women, or vice versa, when in fact no individual salary is affected.

The kind of data necessary for a comparative estimate of the changing rates for men and women is illustrated in the Commissioner's Report for 1889-90 (Vol. 2, chap. 2). This is probably the first attempt at a systematic investigation of this particular and constitutes thus an original contribution to sociological science.

It is scarcely possible with the present data at hand to attempt any comparison between the average salaries of teachers in our own and other countries; but, keeping in mind the absence of a fixed or uniform standard of relation, it may be interesting to note that the average annual salary for men in the United States, counting seven months to the school year, is $331.50 and for women $281.68. The average annual salary for teachers in the Prussian elementary schools was estimated at $340 in 1887, including free residence. Dr. Schlee, of Altoona, observes that "in making a comparison it must be remembered that the advantage of permanency connected with positions in Germany does not exist in America. There are no pensions and stipends after death. Salaries are wages calculated and paid by the month, consisting of four school weeks; vacation months are not included. Salaries do not continue during interruption of duties by leave of absence or sickness.

In France the Government guarantees a minimum salary to every teacher. The teachers are graded in five classes and the minimum annual salary ranges from $200 to $400 for men and from $200 to $320 for women. In addition every teacher must be provided with a house or with a money equivalent for the same. The policy of an assured minimum salary is advocated to some extent in the United States; in New York a bill to this effect has been carried through the legislature and awaits the governor's signature.

TEXT-BOOKS-SELECTION AND SUPPLY.

In a few States text-books do not form a specific subject of legislation, but local boards have control, under the general charge of the welfare of the schools. In most States legislation regulates the selection of text-books.

In some States a guaranty is required from publishers to supply books, according to samples, at wholesale, retail, introduction, exchange, mail prices, part or all, for a term of years.

In fewer States the school boards buy and sell the books on public account. In certain States boards continue to own the books used free by pupils. Indigent pupils are more frequently supplied at public expense.

In most States special or general laws give cities the control of the details of their school administration, including text-books.

Specific penalties are expressed in certain cases for using other than prescribed books, but in general such use would be only a violation of law to be dealt with as it occurred.

Free text-books are furnished in Delaware, District of Columbia, Idaho, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, Nebraska, New Hampshire, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, and Vermont.

State superintendent is here used to indicate the chief officer of the State schools.

In the States immediately following, individuals, except indigents, buy their books.

Arizona.-The lists are fixed for four years by territorial board.

Arkansas.-The list is fixed for three years, with exception by local board, from books recommended by State superintendent.

California.-The State prepares, publishes, and sells books for primary and grammar schools, but high schools supported wholly by local effort are almost free of the law. Penalty for using other than the State list, forfeiture of apportionment from State funds. Indigent pupils are furnished free.

Georgia.-County board fixes list. Penalty, teacher can not receive pay from pupils using other books.

Indiana.-A State board selects books under publishers' guaranty. County boards may fix a list of additional books for high schools for six years. Books are