TROPPAU, trop'pou. The capital of Austrian Silesia, on the right bank of the Oppa, 37 miles northeast of Olmütz (Map: Austria, E 2). It has a Gothic church, a castle, a library of 35,000 volumes, and a museum of natural history and antiquities; also the Franz-Josef Museum of art and industry, the provincial insane asylum, etc. Troppau manufactures large quantities of cloth for army use; also stoves, machines, etc. It was founded in the thirteenth century. At Troppau, in the fall and winter of 1820, a congress of European monarchs assembled for the purpose of dealing with the revolutionary disturbances in Italy. It was one of the series of European congresses which under the inspiration of Metternich (q.v.) sought to check the spread of liberal ideas and to carry out the policy of the Holy Alliance (q.v.). Population, in 1900, 26,725.

TROS'SACHS. A picturesque and wellwooded valley in Perthshire, Scotland, between Lochs Acray and Katrine, eight miles southwest of Cailander, amid hills rising from 1851 feet to 2390 feet in height (Map: Scotland, D 3). It has been a great tourist resort since its immortalization by Sir Walter Scott in The Lady of the Lake and Rob Roy.

TROTTING (from trot, from OF., Fr. trotter, probably from OHG. trotton, to tread, MHG. trotten, to run, frequentative of OHG. tretan, Ger. treten, to tread, step). A gait of the horse. Notwithstanding that the foundation of America's trotting stock came from England, and that in Russia there are the celebrated "Orloff" trotters and another breed in Norway, the trotting racer of to-day is distinctly the product of America. The gait was known to the ancients, but was abominated by them. Trotting was a favorite gait among the English sportsmen of Suffolk and Lincolnshire at the end of the eighteenth century, and a special breed there performed wonders; "Locksmith's gray" trotted 72 miles in 6 hours in 1762. Ten years later, a Lincolnshire horse trotted 30 miles in 2 hours and 10 minutes, with a rider weighing 220 pounds, and "Phenomena" 17 miles in 53 minutes. Yet as an historical fact American trotters owe nothing to these fast English trotters, but everything to the thoroughbred. The modern trotter may be traced back to "Messenger," who was imported in 1788 by Thomas Benger, of Bristol, Pa. His father was "Blaze;" his grandsire "Flying Childers;" his great-grandsire the "Darley Barb." His mother's father was "Turf," who was directly descended from the "Godolphin Barb." So on both sides of his pedigree "Messenger" brought the most select thoroughbred blood into America. He was a running-bred horse, yet from him the American trotter derives its dominant characteristics, the grit of the Arab, the gentleness of the Barb, and the hardy endurance of the English thoroughbred. The Hambletonians, comprising 90 per cent. of the American trotters, are derived from "Messenger" on both sides through Rysdyk's "Hambletonian," "Abdallah," and "Mambrino Messenger." "Hambletonian's" dam was the Charles Kent mare, the daughter of "One Eye," and granddaughter of "Silver Tail," who was the daughter of "Messenger." Hambletonian's family includes "Dexter," 2m. 172s.; "Goldsmith's Maid," 2m. 14s.; "Rarus," 2m. 134s.; "Saint Julien," 2m. 118.;

"Jay Eye See," 2m. 10s.; “Maud S.,” 2m. 84s.; "Sunol," 2m. 84s.; "Nancy Hanks," 2m. 4s.; "Alix," 2m. 34 s.; and "Directum," 2m. 54s. The second great trotting family, the Mambrinos, great for racing quality and beauty, is derived on the father's side from "Messenger," and on the mother's from imported "Paymaster." The mingling of the blood of the Hambletonians and "Mambrino Chief" has resulted in such ideal trotters as "Azota," 2m. 448., and "Cresceus," 2m. 248. The founder of the Clay family was "Young Bashaw," by "Grand Bashaw,” an imported Barb, but on the female side are "Messenger's" progeny. The Star family, too, on the mother's side came from the same horse.

In the early trotting days colts were never trained; only matured horses raced, and they were capable of feats of endurance which no modern horse is or could be called upon to perform. "Fanny Jenks" in 1845 trotted 101 miles in 9 hours, 57 minutes, drawing a sulky weighing 150 pounds. "Lady Suffolk" beat "Dutchman" two three-mile heats in Im. 401⁄2s. and 7m. 56s. respectively, and she trotted her fastest mile when twelve years old. "Goldsmith's Maid" trotted a mile in 2m. 141⁄2s. when she was seventeen years old. She started 118 times and beat 2m. 30s. in 115 of them, and "Maud S." made her then world's record, 2m. 84s., when she was eleven years old. These times, too, were all before the days of the kite-shaped tracks, banked and rolled with scientific nicety, and long before the rubber-tired wheel sulky, both of which inventions have helped to reduce the mile record. On August 17, 1903, at the Brighton Beach (N. Y.) track, the trotting record was reduced by J. K. Billings's "Lou Dillon" to two minutes, but in October of the same year "Lou Dillon" still further reduced the record to 1m. 58%s. where it now (1907) stands. Weather conditions were unfavorable, but the mare had the advantage of two pacemakers, one drawing a wire-net guard acting as a windshield. This form of record making is protested by many authorities, who claim that such time should be recorded separately.

For pleasure driving and friendly road competitions a light wagon was in use as early as

1786, but not until after that did the trotter as a Blue" trotted a mile in little less than three racer become prominent. In that year "Boston minutes. By 1825 the New York Trotting Club was formed, and dashes of speed were daily indulged in on what is now Third Avenue, from the Bull's Head to Harlem. Up to 1898, however, the great bulk of the trotting of the country was done on tracks, 2000 of which were scattered over the continent. These tracks on which regular races are held are either exactly one mile or half a mile from start to finish, and a horse must win two heats to win the race. The courses are in the main elliptical, though some, built after 1890, are kite-shaped.

Since 1898 a great impetus has been given to trotting competitions by the creation of civic speedways, the first of which was constructed by the municipality of New York, along the banks of the Harlem River, from 155th Street to Fort

George. Many great cities throughout the country have followed the example.

TROTWOOD, BETSY. In Dickens's David Copperfield, the hero's great-aunt, an eccentric

TROUBADOURS

(Fr. troubadour, from Prov. trobador, troubadour, from trobar, OF. trover, trouver, Fr. trouver, to find, compose). The medieval poets of Southern France, who flourished from about 1100 to about 1400, singers of war and love, whose wandering lives, full of passion and adventure, have made them the typical romantic figures of their age. The feudal conditions of the region to which they belonged were particularly favorable to the development of this race of bards. Here, as elsewhere, society was divided into three classes, commons, clergy, and nobles, of whom the nobles alone possessed either the means or the desire liberally to reward literary and musical skill. The nobility, moreover, consisted of an agglomeration of petty independent barons, who tended to attach themselves to powerful local houses, such as that of the counts of Toulouse. There were, therefore, many courts, not too far distant from each other, to which the wandering minstrels could resort. Another social condition which had an important influence upon the character of Provençal poetry was the position of noble ladies. They received fiefs, sometimes by inheritance, sometimes as dowry, and there are instances in which they even governed and presided over a court. Usually married young and for social and political reasons rather than for love, they became queens of society, the objects often of fervent passion, always of conventional adoration.

With the accumulation of wealth and the progress of refinement, delight in life became conspicuous. The love of splendor manifested itself in gorgeousness of dress and magnificence of entertainments. Prodigality was the fashion. The ideal prince was he who bestowed gifts lavishly. In addition to the chase and the tourney, one of the favorite amusements of this society was song, an amusement supplied by the jongleurs and the troubadours. The jongleurs (joculatores) were the successors of the Latin mimi. They wandered from town to town, from castle to castle, and supplied amusement to the commons at the fairs and in the market-place, and to the higher classes at their feasts. The meaner kind not only recited, sang, and played on musical instruments, but performed as jugglers, dancers, acrobats, and exhibitors of trained animals. Members of this class were also to be found in the following of every great lord, among his permanent domestic servants or ministeriales. They fulfilled the function of Court minstrels

and entertainers.

From such singers sprang the troubadours. In general, it may be said that the jongleur was one who made a trade of poetry and music; the troubadour one who devoted himself to the production of artistic Court poetry, whether he did this for gain or not. The jongleurs were, therefore, always poor, either by origin or by fate, whereas the troubadours, though largely belonging to the humble or the middle class, included knights, barons, counts, and even kings.

Most of the troubadours led a wandering life, though they often lingered for several years at the Court of some patron, praising the mistress of the mansion in extravagant terms, and supporting the policy of its master by vigorous exhortations to his friends or by bitter denun

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this

poetry was, there were no schools in which the art was taught. Each troubadour learned from his predecessors, and handed down the tradition to the next generation. Even the art of writing was not necessary, for the pieces were not prepared for readers, but for hearers. They were almost always sung by the composer himself, to his own accompaniment, but those masters who could not sing taught the words and music to their jongleurs. This was also the natural mode of publishing a poem destined for a wider audience than could be reached by the individual author. Poets of high rank, moreover, had their pieces performed by servants, and whenever a lyric was sent to some friend at a distance it was not intrusted to writing, but to the voice of a messenger. This poetry, therefore, required a pleasure-loving aristocracy for its audience, and wealthy and generous patrons for its support. It mirrored the soul of chivalry, an ideal of heroism, generosity, courtesy, and love. For flattering the vanity of the nobles and lending his talent to their taste for pleasure, the singer was rewarded with gifts of money, weapons, horses, or garments. Generosity was naturally praised as the chief of princely virtues, and growing avarice was a sign of the hopeless degeneracy of the times. Richard Cœur de Lion was considered the mirror of knighthood, and the practical statesmanship of Philip Augustus of France was judged low and unworthy. With the disappearance of the society they represented, the troubadours also vanished.

The first troubadour whose lyrics have been preserved was William IX., Count of Poitou and Duke of Aquitaine, but he must have had a long line of humble forerunners. His granddaughter, Eleanor, the quick-witted but licentious wife of Louis VII. and Henry Plantagenet, was the theme of the impassioned songs of Bernart de Ventadour. Ermengarde of Narbonne was another celebrated patroness of poetry, with many adorers in verse. This was, indeed, the flourishing period of the troubadours. Among their chief patrons were the counts of Provence, the counts of Toulouse, and several kings of Aragon and Castile, the most notable of whom was Alfonso II. of Aragon. In Italy the lords of Este and the Emperor Frederick II. harbored the singers of Languedoc. At these courts minstrels were kindly received and lavishly rewarded, taking part, apparently, in the social pleasures mirrored in their songs. This gay life, however, was not without its bitterness, and many a troubadour retired to a convent to pass his declining years in repentance.

Much of the romantic interest that has gathered about the careers of these poets is derived from the Provençal biographies and razos which are found in some of the manuscripts containing their works. Many of these are merely imaginative tales in which elements of folk-lore, combined with a fanciful interpretation of the poems, have been set down as fact. Growing up among the later jongleurs and other lovers of poetry, they represent the conception which the succeeding age had formed of the heroes of Provençal song. Another fact has tended to give a romantic coloring to the lives of the troubadours: the

fact that their poems deal so largely with the subject of love. This love was, it is true, chiefly factitious and conventional, rather than personal, and the formulas in which it was expressed are exceedingly monotonous; but the modern imagination has built up for these wandering minstrels a sort of butterfly existence of poetry and passion, to which is added the excitement of constant adventures. That such a picture does not represent the truth is obvious, but it is intensely fascinating, and the troubadours will probably long continue to be regarded as sentimental heroes.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. The best work on the subject for English readers is Justin H. Smith, The Troubadours at Home, with bibliography (New York, 1899), a popular view of the troubadour country, stories of their adventures, and translations of their poems, together with copious and scholarly notes. Less exact and scholarly are Hueffer, The Troubadours (London, 1878); Rutherford, The Troubadours; Their Loves and Their Lyrics (ib., 1873); Rowbotham, The Troubadours and the Courts of Love (ib., 1895). The best edition of Les biographies des trouba dours in Provençal is that by Chabaneau (Toulouse, 1885). Most of these biographies have been translated by Ida Farnell, Lives of the Troubadours from the Mediaval Provençal (London, 1896). Consult also the authorities referred to under PROVENÇAL LITERATURE.

TROUBETZ/KOY, Princess AMÉLIE (RIVES), See RIVES, AMÉLIE.

TROUP, GEORGE MCINTOSH (1780-1856). An American politician, born in the present Washington County, Ala. He graduated at the College of New Jersey (Princeton) in 1797, was admitted to the bar in 1800, and began to practice in Savannah. From 1801 to 1804 he was a member of the Georgia Legislature; was a member of the United States House of Representatives from 1807 to 1815; was chairman of the Military Committee during the War of 1812, and opposed vigorously the Yazoo compromise. From 1816 to 1818 he was in the United States Senate, and from 1823 to 1827 was Governor of Georgia. During the dispute which arose between the agents of the general Government and the State in regard to the extinguishment of the Creek title to lands in Georgia, he did not hesitate to defy the Federal Government. From 1829 to 1833 he was again

a member of the United States Senate. He was a strong defender of States' rights, and in 1833 presided over the Georgia States' Rights Con

vention.

TROUS-DE-LOUP, troo' de-loo', or WOLFHOLES. A device formerly much used in military fortifications. It consisted of funnel-shaped holes, 6 feet deep, with an exterior diameter of 4% feet, having one or more pointed stakes at the bottom. They were placed near the approaches and the glacis, and were designed to break the ranks of the attacking force. The principle is still retained in the modern shallow military pits, and other forms of military obstacles, wire entanglements, etc.

TROUT (AS. truht, from OF. truite, from Lat. tructa, tructus, from Gk. Tрóктns, trōktēs, sort of sea-fish, from rpwyɛw, trōgein, to gnaw). Any of many fishes of the family Salmonidæ. (See

SALMON.) Some are partly anadromous, but most of the species live exclusively in fresh waters, and occur in most of the lakes and streams of northern regions. They are all voracious and more or less gamy. Their food consists of almost any sort of fresh animal mattersmaller fishes, crustaceans, insect larvæ, and the like. The trout, like the salmon, spawn during the colder months of the year, varying with the latitude and the species.

Trout may be classed into two main groups. The one group, belonging to the genus Salmo, has a flat vomer, supplied with teeth, the body with larger scales than the other group, which has a boat-shaped vomer, the shaft destitute of teeth. The latter group is more perfectly restricted to fresh waters than the former. The former group includes the salmon-trout, and the latter the chars, such as the brook trout. The salmon-trout of European waters (Salmo trutta) resides in salt water, and enters the rivers to spawn. Its fresh-water variety, the brown trout (Salmo fario), occurs in the lakes of Europe, and has been extensively domesticated in English and North American waters. Another Scottish variety, the Lochleven trout, differs from the brown trout in the greater growth of the pectoral and caudal fins, in the greater number of cæcal appendages, and in other minor characters.

The American salmon-trout (Salmo Gairdneri) is a large trout, abundant in the Columbia and other rivers flowing to the Pacific coast. (See STEELHEAD.) A variety of it, the Kamloops trout, or 'stit-tse,' occupies the lakes of British Columbia and northern Washington.

The rainbow or Coast Range trout (Salmo irideus) is smaller than the preceding, has larger scales and brighter colors. It is native in the mountain streams of the Pacific Coast, and probably enters the sea. It is very variable, presents many geographical varieties, such as the brook trout of western Nevada, the trout of Mt. Shasta, golden trout of Mt. Whitney, the McCloud River trout, and others. It has been transplanted successfully into the mountain streams of the Eastern United States, and has been domesticated to some degree. The 'cut-throat' or Rocky Mountain trout (Salmo mykiss) is a common trout of very wide distribution in all the clear streams of the Rocky Mountains and Sierra Nevada, from Kamtchatka and Alaska to Northern Mexico. Its scales are smaller than in the nearly related species, hyoid teeth are usually present, and it is very closely related to Salmo Gairdneri. This species often enters the sea, and is very variable, many geographical races being recognized, one of which, 'Clarke's trout' of the Columbia River, is illustrated on the Plate of SALMON.

The Great Lakes trout, longe,' 'togue,' or 'namaycush,' differs from Salmo in the absence of teeth on the shaft of the vomer, and from the brook trout in its larger size and well-developed larger lakes of Eastern North America, and is teeth on the hyoid bone. It inhabits all the one of the more important food-fishes of the Great Lakes region. found only in the deep waters of Lake Superior, The variety 'siscowet,' has excessively fat flesh, and is not prized as food. See NAMAYCUSH.

The principal chars of American waters are the common brook or speckled trout, the Dolly Varden, the oquassa, and the European brook