become the reverse of brief, for the Buddhist Sutras, or Suttas (see PITAKA), the sermons ascribed to Buddha, excel in prolixity almost every other type of literature in existence.

SUTRI, soỡ trê (anciently SUTRIUM). A town in the Province of Rome, Italy, 29 miles northwest of Rome. It is interesting for its ancient walls and gates, its Etruscan tombs, and the ruins of an amphitheatre dating from the time of Augustus. Sutri is known as the scene of the synod which in 1046 deposed Popes Gregory VI. and Sylvester III. Population (commune), in 1901, 2795.

SUTRO, soo'trò, ADOLPH HEINRICH JOSEPH (1830-98). A German-American mining engineer, philanthropist, and Mayor of San Francisco. He was born at Aix-la-Chapelle, in

In

Rhenish Prussia; came to the United States in 1850; and soon after went to the Pacific Coast. He was best known as the designer and constructor of the famous Sutro Tunnel, built to drain and ventilate the mines of the celebrated Comstock silver lode in Nevada. It is 20,500 feet long, and cost about $6,500,000. It did not prove so valuable as had been hoped, but by investing the returns which he got from it in San Francisco real estate Sutro became a millionaire. 1880 he laid out in San Francisco the Sutro Heights Park, and he made numerous gifts to the city. He also founded the Sutro Library, containing about 250,000 volumes. In 1894 he was elected Mayor of the city by the Populists. By the terms of his will Sutro Heights was given to the city for a public park, the Sutro Library was to be opened to the public, and San Miguel ranch was given to support a scientific school. The will was, however, set aside by the courts on the ground that he was not mentally competent at the time he made it.

SUTTEE (from Skt. sati, virtuous wife). The practice which prevailed in India of a wife burning herself on the funeral pile, either with the body of her husband, or separately, if he died at a distance. Suttee for the orthodox Hindus is based on the injunctions of their sacred books, and there can be no doubt that various passages in the Puranas (q.v.) and codes of law countenance belief in its merit and efficacy. These, however, are all rather late texts. The custom is alluded to in Hindu literature, and classical authors refer to it as early as B.C. 316. It has even been referred to the Rig Veda as authority, and it was formerly thought that a Vedic verse had been falsified to give support to the practice. It has been shown, however, that this view is untenable. The Rig Veda does not recognize the custom. Manu (q.v.), the law-giver, does not sanction it, though it was known before his time. It appears at first to have been a royal custom and privilege, afterwards generalized and made legal. The custom was abolished by the British in 1829. Suttee is by no means confined to India. Under other names, and in other forms, the widow's death at the grave of her husband is known in many parts of the world, notably in the South Pacific, where a king's favorite wives were wont to let themselves be buried alive in his grave. Consult: Colebrook, Digest of Hindu Law (London, 1801); id., Miscellaneous Essays, vol. i. (new ed., ib., 1873); Grimm, Kleinere Schriften, vol. ii. (Berlin, 1849); Wilson, Collected Works, ed. by Rost, vol. ii. (London, 1862). VOL. XVIII.-47.

SUTTER, JOHN AUGUSTUS (1803-80). An American pioneer, born in Kandern, Baden. He was of Swiss parentage and was educated at the military college at Berne. He emigrated to America in 1834, and became a trader at Santa Fe, N. M. In 1838 he made his way to the Pacific Coast, thence to the Sandwich Islands,

and finally to Alaska. Obtaining a grant of Mexican land, he established in 1841 a settlement called New Helvetia, where the city of Sacramento now stands. He was Governor of

the north district of California under the Mexicans, and alcalde and Indian agent after it passed to the United States. In February, 1848, however, brought him nothing but disaster. Goldgold was discovered on his estate. The discovery, diggers preempted his lands, and except an annual pension of $3000 granted him by the California Legislature he received nothing. He settled in Pennsylvania in 1873.

SUTTNER, zoot'ner, BERTHA VON (1843-). An Austrian novelist, especially known for her efforts to promote peace. Born at Prague, the daughter of Count Franz Kinsky, she married, in 1876, Baron Arthur von Suttner (1850-1902), also known as a novelist. In 1891 she founded the Austrian Society of Peace-lovers, and, as its president, took a prominent part in the peace congresses at Rome (1891), Bern (1892), Antwerp (1894), and Hamburg (1897). Her novels include: High Life (1884; 3d ed., 1902); Erzählte Lustspiele (1889); Die Waffen nieder (1889; 14th ed., 1896), translated into most European languages; and its sequel Marthas Kinder (1902); Babis siebente Liebe (1905); Lay Down Your Arms (1905). She also wrote Das Maschinenzeitalter (3d ed., 1898) and Die Haager Friedenskonferenz, Tagebuchblätter (1900); and edited Die Waffen nieder (Dresden, 1892 et seq.), organ of the Peace Bureau at Bern. In 1905 she received the Nobel peace prize.

SUTTON. A town in Surrey, England, four miles northeast of Epsom. Population, in 1891, 13,977; in 1901, 17,224.

SUTTON COLD'FIELD. A municipal borough in Warwickshire, England, seven miles north-northeast of Birmingham (Map: England, E 4). The chief objects of interest are an ancient Early English church, the grammar school founded in 1543, and the celebrated Sutton Park, a recreation ground of 3500 acres, these two latter institutions due to the beneficence of Bishop Vesey of Henry VIII.'s reign, who also bequeathed real estate yielding an annual revenue of $15,000, which is applied to educational and charitable purposes. Population, in 1891, 8685; in 1901, 14,264.

SUTTON IN ASH'FIELD. A town in Not

tinghamshire, England, three miles southwest of Mansfield, known for its hosiery manufactures. It has a church of the twelfth century. Population, in 1891, 10,562; in 1901, 14,862.

SU TUNG-P'O, or SOO TUNG-P'O, soo'tûng'po' (1036-1101). The name by which Su Shih, a Chinese statesman and poet, is best known. He entered public service in 1060, and soon attracted the attention of the Emperor. At his own request he was appointed Governor of Hangchow (q.v.). He opposed the reforms of Wang An-shih, then in favor at the Court, and was degraded in consequence and banished. On

the death of the Emperor in 1086 he was recalled to the capital, where he filled several high posts, becoming president of the Board of Rites in 1091. The sarcasm of his verse, however, continued to make him enemies, and, being accused of speaking ill of the Emperor, he was again banished. A new Emperor having come to the throne, he was recalled in 1101 and restored to honor, but died soon after at Ch'ang-chow, in Kiang-su. In the estimation of the Chinese, Su stands in the first rank as a poet. An edition of his works in 115 books was issued in his lifetime, and there have been many since then with commentaries and new arrangements. Copious translated extracts are to be found in Giles, Gems of Chinese Literature (London, 1884), and his Chinese Literature (New York, 1901).

SUTURE (from Lat. sutura, seam, from suere, to sew; connected with Skt. siv, Goth. siujan, OHG. siuwan, siwan, AS. siwian, Eng. sew). A term employed both in anatomy and surgery. In anatomy it is used to designate the

modes of connection between the various bones of the cranium and face. A suture is said to be serrated when it is formed by the union of two edges of bone with projections and indentations (like the edge of a saw) fitting into one another. The coronal, sagittal, and lambdoidal sutures (see SKULL) are of this kind. A suture is termed squamous when it is formed by the overlapping of the beveled (or scale-like) edges of two contiguous bones. There are also the harmonia and schindylesis sutures, the former being the simple apposition of rough bony surfaces, and the latter being the reception of one bone

into a fissure of another. See JOINT.

In surgery the word suture is employed to designate various modes of sewing up wounds. The term is also applied to a single stitch. Two main varieties of suture are recognized, the continuous and the interrupted suture, and from these two a great number of modifications have been made, of which the quill suture, button suture, the glover's suture, the quilt suture, and the intestinal sutures of Lembert and Duypuytren are examples. A buried suture is one which unites some deeper structure, such as a muscle or a layer of fascia, and which does not appear above the skin. It is often made of some absorbable material. Many materials are at present employed for sutures, such as silk, catgut, silkworm-gut, horse-hair, animal-tendon, and silver wire. Consult McGrath, Surgical Anatand Operative Surgery (Philadelphia,

omy 1902).

SU'VA. The capital and chief port of the British colony of the Fiji Islands (q.v.). It is situated on the southwestern coast of Viti Levu, 1100 miles from Auckland and 1540 miles from Brisbane. There is good anchorage in a harbor accessible at all tides; wharf extension was made in 1901. There is a European population of nearly 1100.

SUVALKY, soo-väl'kė. A government of Russian Poland, situated in the northeastern part. Area, 4846 square miles (Map: Russia, D 4). The surface is generally flat and interspersed with lakes. The principal river is the Niemen. The soil is mostly fertile. About one-fourth of the area is in forests, which belong chiefly to the State and are extensively exploited. The prin

cipal occupation is agriculture. Population, in 1897, 582,913, half of whom were Lithuanians. SUVALKY. The capital of the Government of Suvalky in Russian Poland, situated on a small tributary of the Niemen, 606 miles southwest of Saint Petersburg (Map: Russia, D 4). Population, in 1899, 27,165.

SUVAROFF, su-vä'rôf, or SUVOROFF, ALEXEI VASSILIEVITCH, Count (1729-1800). Russian field-marshal. He was of Swedish descent and was born in Finland. He served in the campaigns of the Seven Years' War and was made a colonel after the battle of Kunersdorf (1759). His services in the Polish War (176872), in the war against the Turks (1773-74), in suppressing the uprising of Pugatcheff, and in subduing the Tatars of the Kuban (1783), gave him increased reputation and he rose to the rank of general. In the Turkish War of 1787-92 he was commander-in-chief, for the first time brought the bayonet prominently into use in the Russian army, and decided by it the battle of Kinburn (1787). At the siege of Otchakov (1788), the battle of Fokshany (1789), which he gained in conjunction with the Austrians, and the decisive victory of Rymnik (1789), his system of rapid and repeated attack by overwhelming numbers secured him complete success. For this last victory, which saved the Austrians under the Prince of Saxe-Coburg from annihilation or capture, Suvaroff was created by the Emperor Joseph II. a count of the Empire, and from his own sovereign received the title of Count Suvaroff-Rymnikski. One of his greatest successes was the storming, in 1790, of the fortress of Ismail, where the whole Turkish garrison was put to the sword. He was appointed (1791) Governor of the newly conquered provinces. In 1794 he was sent into Poland, where he completed the annihilation of the Polish monarchy by a victory won, in conjunction with Fersen, over the army of Kosciuszko, the capture of Praga, where a horrible massacre of the inhabitants took place, and the occupation of Warsaw. The grade of field-marshal rewarded these successes. Under Paul I. he fell into disgrace (1798), from his impatience of the Emperor's fantastic military regulations, and was deprived of his rank; but being restored through English influence, he commanded the army sent to cooperate with the Austrians in Italy against the French. He reached Verona in April, 1799; compelled Moreau to retire behind the Adda after defeating him at Cassano (April 27th); entered Milan (April 29th); again defeated the French under Macdonald at the Trebbia (June 17th-19th), and a third time under Joubert at Novi (August 15th), driving them out of the whole of Northern Italy. He next entered Switzerland in order to join Korsakoff and effected a toilsome march across the Saint Gotthard, in the course of which he lost one-third of his army. But Masséna defeated the army of Korsakoff at Zurich (September 25th), and Suvaroff was compelled to execute a retreat through the Grisons and Vorarlberg. For these remarkable services he received the title of Prince Italiski. In 1800 he was named commander-in-chief of the Russian armies and ordered home. He arrived in the capital, where he died May 18, 1800. He left an autobiography

in French, which was edited by Glinka (Moscow, 1819). Consult also: Smith, Suworows Leben und Heerzüge (Vilna, 1833-34); id., Suworow und Polens Untergang (Leipzig, 1858); Reding-Biberegg, Der Zug Suworows durch die Schweiz (Zurich, 1869); Macready, A Sketch of Suwarrow and His Last Campaign (London, 1851).

SUWANEE, su-wa'nê. A river of Florida (Map: Florida, E 2). It rises in the Okefinokee Swamp in southern Georgia and flows southwest, emptying into the Gulf of Mexico, 12 miles north of Cedar Keys, after a course of 240 miles. The scenery along its banks is attractive, and the river has been celebrated throughout the country by the song, "Old Folks at Home."

SUYUTI, soo-yoo'tê (Ar. Abū al Faḍl Abd al-Rahman al-Suyuṭi) (1445-1505). An encyclopædist and the most prolific writer in Arabic literature. His family was of Persian origin, but had emigrated to Egypt, where his father was a judge and professor at Cairo. Hither the son returned after the usual travels to Mecca and the centres of learning, and here he rose from one professorship to another. But at last his arrogant and dishonest conduct drove him from his position and he died in retirement. The production of great numbers of books seems to have been his affectation, and although they do not reveal genius, they are of value for the encyelopædic information they contain. About 315 titles of extant books of his are enumerated, touching upon every subject. Consult: Wüstenfeld, Die Geschichtsschreiber der Araber (Göttingen, 1882); Brockelmann, Geschichte der arabischen Litteratur (Berlin, 1899).

SVARGA, swär'gå (Skt., heaven). In Hindu mythology, the paradise of the god Indra (q.v.). It is the residence of some of the inferior gods and deified mortals, who there rest in the shade of the five wonderful trees, Mandāra, Pārijāta, Santana, Kalpavṛksa, and Harichandana, drink amṛta, the beverage of immortality, and enjoy the music of the heavenly musicians, the Gandharvas, and the dancing of the celestial courtesans, the Apsarasas. Svarga is situated on Mount Meru (q.v.), and is 800 miles in circumference and 80 miles high. Its pillars are of diamonds and its palaces of gold. The inhabitants do not remain there forever, but after a lapse of years they descend to earth to be born and die according to the doctrine of metempsychosis (q.v.).

SVEABORG, sva'à-bôr-y'. A fortress of Fin

land, Russia. See HELSINGFORS.

SVEARIKE, sva'ȧ-re'ke. One of the three historical divisions of Sweden. It lies between Götarike and Norrland. Area, 32,589 square miles. Population, in 1900, 1,579,954.

SVENDBORG, svendborg. A seaport of Denmark, on the southeast coast of the island of Fünen, on the Svendborg Sound, 27 miles south of Odense (Map: Denmark, D 3). The town occupies a charming site in a hill-encircled valley. The chief industries are iron-founding, tanning, and shipbuilding. Population, in 1901, 11.531.

SVEND'SEN, JOHAN (1840-). A Norwegian violinist and composer, born at Christiania. He studied at the Leipzig Conserva⚫ tory, toured extensively, later was appointed

Concertmeister of the Leipzig 'Euterpe' concerts, and from 1872 to 1877 was conductor of the Christiania Musical Association. Afterwards he became Court conductor at Copenhagen, and in 1896 was appointed conductor of the Royal Theatre. His works include string quartets and quintets; symphony in D; violin concerto in A; overture to Björnson's drama Sigurd Slembe; Carnaval à Paris, for the orchestra; Coronation March (for Oscar II.); Wedding Cantata, for chorus and orchestra; Carnaval des artistes norvégiens; Norwegian rhapsodies for the orchestra; overture to Romeo and Juliet; Scandinavian airs for string quartet; and Romance in G, for the violin and or

chestra.

SVERDRUP, svěr'drup, JOHAN (1816-92). A Norwegian politician, born at the Château of Jarisberg. He studied and practiced law, but from 1850, when he was elected to the Storthing, gave his entire attention to politics and became the leader of the radical peasant faction. As president of the Storthing since 1871, he violently fought against the royal prerogatives. He was called to preside over the Ministry in 1884, but did not satisfy the radical portion of his adherents, and, yielding to the combined attacks of the Conservatives and the extreme Left, resigned in

1889.

SVERDRUP, OTTO (1855-). A Norwegian of Helgeland. He followed the sea at the age Arctic explorer, born at Haarstad Farm, District merchant vessel, and in 1888 joined Nansen's of seventeen, was subsequently in command of a expedition to Greenland. In 1893 he started with Nansen for the North Pole as commander of the Fram, which had been built under his supervision, and when Nansen, in 1895, proceeded north on dog sledges, Sverdrup took the ship to the Arctic Sea and in 1896 back to Norway. In 1898 he led another expedition in the Fram as far as Cape Sable, was caught in the ice for a year, and, after advancing into Jones's Sound in the summer of 1899, was again icebound for three years. Having explored the

southwest and western shores of Ellesmere Land and discovered islands north of the Peary Archipelago, he reached Goodhaven, Greenland, in August, 1902. He wrote New Land; Four Years in the Arctic Regions (1904).

SWA'BIA, or SUABIA (Ger. Schwaben, Lat. Suevia). A mediæval duchy in the southwest of Germany. It took its name from the Suevi, by which the Germanic people of the Alemanni (q.v.), who occupied Southwestern Germany in the third century, were also known. The name

Suevia alternates with that of Alemannia as the designation of the country in the early part of the Middle Ages, but the former finally prevailed. The region occupied by the Alemanni embraced Western Bavaria, Württemberg, Baden, Alsace, and a great part of Switzerland. The bulk of the nation was subjected by the Franks at the close of the fifth century. As part of the Frankish realm, Alemannia was governed by native dukes, but the duchy was abolished before the dissolution of the Frankish Empire. The country from which Alsace and part of the Alpine territories had been detached, and which now came to be known as Swabia, was then placed under the rule of counts and nuntii

camera, and for a time it was nearly independent.

In 919 Swabia was constituted one of the great duchies of the German Kingdom. It comprised the region between the Rhine and the Lech and part of Switzerland. The office of duke was frequently kept in the royal family. In 1079 the duchy passed to the House of Hohenstaufen, being bestowed by the Emperor Henry IV. upon Frederick of Staufen. Under the rule of this house, which occupied the Imperial throne of Germany from 1138 to 1254, Swabia was the most wealthy and powerful of the German duchies. In 1096 Frederick of Staufen was compelled to give up to Berthold of Zähringen the Breisgau and the Imperial bailiffship in Zurich. On the extinction of the Hohenstaufen dynasty in 1268 disintegration took place and the ducal vassals (cities, prelates, counts, etc.) claimed independence except for their allegiance to the emperors. The Count of Württemberg occupied the leading place among the petty rulers. The numerous lesser lords were for the most part obliged to accept the overlordship of the House of Zähringen or of Austria. The cities, of which many had become wealthy and powerful, were striving for local independence. In 1376 some of them formed the first Swabian League, which extended beyond the bounds of Swabia. In 1405 Württemberg, Baden, and seventeen cities joined together in the League of Marbach. The two Leagues were of little importance as political powers, but they paved the way for the Great Swabian League, formed in 1488, which under the leadership of the Count of Württemberg exercised administrative and judicial authority over the whole country. During this long period of strife a considerable portion of old Swabia had passed into the power of Bavaria. In 1512 Swabia became one of the ten circles into which Germany was divided for administrative purposes by Maximilian I. The dissolution of the Great Swabian League took place in 1533. Among the many city commonwealths which arose in Swabia were Augsburg, Ulm, and Constance. The

southwestern Government District of Bavaria bears the name of Swabia (or Swabia and Newburg). Its capital is Augsburg. The best general history is Stälin, Geschichte Württembergs (Gotha, 1882-87).

SWADLINCOTE, swōd'lin-kot. A town in Derbyshire, England, 4 miles southeast of Burton-upon-Trent. Its industries comprise coalmining and the various branches of earthenware manufacture. Population, in 1891, 13,889; in 1901, 18,014.

SWAHILI, swȧ-he'lê. A Bantu people of the Kau District, Tana-Ozi Delta, British East Africa, mingled more or less in blood with Semites. They are Mohammedans and differ little from the Arabs in general culture. They number about one million. They are noted traders, and their language, the Kiswahili, is the great medium of intercourse throughout east Central Africa. Consult: Büttner, Wörterbuch der Suahelisprache (Berlin, 1890); Seidel, Grammatik der Suahelisprache (Vienna, 1891); Steere, Handbook of the Swahili Language (4th ed., London, 1894); Krapf, Dictionary of the Suahili Language (ib., 1882); Madan, English-Swahili Dictionary (Oxford, 1894) Delaunay, Grammaire Kiswahili (Paris, 1898).

SWAIN, CHARLES (1801-74). An English writer known as 'the Manchester poet.' He was born in Manchester, and lived all his life in England. For fourteen years he was a clerk in the dye house of his uncle; he afterwards carried on a business in engraving and lithographing. Between 1827 and 1867 he published several volumes of verse, among which are Dryburgh Abbey (1832), an elegy on Sir Walter Scott; English Melodies (1849); and the more ambitious The Mind and Other Poems (1832). Several of his songs, which have been set to music, are well known, as "Somebody's Waiting for Somebody" and "Tapping at the Window." Consult the edition of his poems, with portrait and introduction by C. C. Smith (Boston, 1857).

SWAIN, GEORGE FILLMORE (1857-). An American civil engineer. He was born in San Francisco and was educated at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, where he graduated in 1877. He then studied three years in the Government engineering school at Berlin, Germany. Upon his return he settled in Boston, where in 1887 he became professor of civil engi neering at the Institute of Technology, and engineer to the Massachusetts Railroad Commission. In 1894 he was also made a member of the Boston Transit Commission. His most important publication is a "Report on the Water Power of the Atlantic Watershed" (vol. xvii. of Tenth United States Census).

SWAIN, JOSEPH (1857-). An American educator, born at Pendleton, Ind. He graduated at Indiana University in 1883; studied in the University of Edinburgh, and with the astronomer royal of Scotland in 1885-86; was professor of mathematics in his alma mater from 1886 till 1891; and in the latter year was called as professor of mathematics to Leland Stanford University. Two years afterwards he returned to Indiana University as president, and remained in that position until 1902, when he accepted the presidency of Swarthmore College in Pennsylvania.

SWAIN'SON, WILLIAM (1789-1855). An . English naturalist, born in Liverpool. He traveled in South America, and on his return to England began the publication of works on natural history. In 1841 he emigrated to New Zealand, where he became Attorney-General. Important among his works are: Zoological Illustrations (1820-23; 1829-33); Exotic Conchology (182122); Ornithological Drawings (1834-41); Birds of Western Africa (1837); The Naturalist's Guide, etc. (1840).

SWALLOW (AS. swalewe, OHG. sicalawa, Ger. Schwalbe, swallow; perhaps connected with Gk. áλкνúv, alkyōn, Lat. alcedo, kingfisher). A passerine bird of the family Hirundinidæ, a family represented by many similar species in almost all parts of the world. This family consists of birds which prey on insects, catching them in the air. They have remarkable powers of flight, now soaring to a great height, now skimming near the surface of the ground or of the water, and wheeling with great rapidity. The bill is short and weak, broad at the base, and deeply cleft, so that the gape is wide; the wings are very long, pointed, and more or less sickle-shaped when expanded, and have only nine primaries; the legs are short and weak. The tail is gener